Chemically Modified Dendritic Starch: A Novel Nanomaterial for siRNA Delivery

Nanostructured starches are naturally derived nanomaterials that can be chemically modified to allow for the introduction of functional groups, enhancing their potential for drug delivery and other biotechnology applications. In this proof of concept study, we investigate chemically modified, enzymatically synthesized glycogen (ESG) nanodendrites as a biodegradable, biocompatible, siRNA delivery system. Commercially available ESG was modified using glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride (GTMA), introducing quaternary ammonium groups via an epoxide ring opening reaction. This cationic ESG (cESG) electrostatically bound siRNA and successfully knocked down protein expression in an in vitro ovarian clear cell carcinoma model. The construct exhibited sustained siRNA delivery for up to 6 days while exhibiting less toxicity than a common liposome-based siRNA delivery reagent, Lipofectamine RNAiMAX. These promising results set the stage for the use of dendritic starch as a cost-effective, easily modifiable nanoscale delivery system for a diverse range of cargo including nucleic acids and therapeutic compounds

Bioenergetic Analysis of Ovarian Cancer Cell Lines: Profiling of Histological Subtypes and Identification of a Mitochondria-Defective Cell Line

<div><p>Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most lethal of all gynecological cancers, and encompasses distinct histological subtypes that have specific genetic and tissues-of-origin differences. Ovarian clear cell carcinoma (OCCC) represents approximately 10% of cases and has been termed a stress responsive cancer. OCCC is characterized by increased expression of oxidative stress and glycolysis-related genes. In the present study, we hypothesized that bioenergetic profiling might uniquely distinguish OCCC from other EOC histological subtypes. Using an extracellular flux analyzer, OCCC lines (ES-2, TOV-21-G) were shown to be highly metabolically active, with high oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and high extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), indicative of enhanced mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and glycolytic rate, respectively. A high bioenergetics profile was associated with the cell lines' ability to form anchorage independent spheroids. Given their high glycolytic and mitochondrial activity, OCCC cells displayed strong sensitivity to 2-deoxy-D-glucose and Rotenone growth inhibition, although this chemosensitivity profile was not specific to only OCCC cells. Bioenergetic profiling also identified a non-OCCC cell line, OVCA420, to have severely compromised mitochondrial function, based on low OCR and a lack of stimulation of maximal respiration following application of the uncoupler FCCP. This was accompanied by mitochondrial morphology changes indicative of enhanced fission, increased expression of the mitochondrial fission protein Drp1, a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and dependence on glycolysis. Importantly, this loss of mitochondrial function was accompanied by the inability of OVCA420 cells to cope with hypoxic stress, and a compromised ability to stabilize HIF-1α in response to 1% O₂ hypoxia. This knowledge may be imperative for researchers planning to utilize this cell line for further studies of metabolism and hypoxia, and suggests that altered mitochondrial fission dynamics represents a phenotype of a subpopulation of EOCs.</p></div

Chemoresistance Profile of Ovarian Cancer cells.

<p>Cells were treated with indicated doses for 72<b>A</b>. Cisplatin, <b>B</b>. Paclitaxel, <b>C</b>. 2-Deoxyglucose (2-DG), <b>D</b>. Resveratrol, <b>E</b>. Metformin, <b>F</b>. Rotenone, and <b>G</b>. Combination treatment of low dose Rotenone (R; 0.1 µM) and 2-DG (2 mM). Data from one replicative experiment is shown (n = 5-6, A–F: ANOVA, Tukey's post test *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001 significantly less cell viability compared to NOSE007 at same treatment concentration; G: Student's T-test, statistically significant compared to each cell line treatment with rotenone alone [*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001], or 2-DG alone [#p<0.05, ##p<0.01, ###p<0.001, ####p<0.0001]). Asterisks highlight OVCA420 cells, which have defective mitochondrial respiration. <b>H</b>. Expression of GLUT-1 and HNF-1β message in Ovarian cancer cells, as assessed by semi-quantitative real time RT-PCR. Expression was correlated to levels in NOSE007 cells (n = 3; ND  =  no measurable signal detected).</p

Extracellular Acidification Rate (ECAR) profile of Ovarian Cancer Cell lines.

<p><b>A</b>. Basal ECAR levels were measured using an extracellular flux analyzer (Seahorse Bioscience). <b>B</b>. Maximal ECAR was stimulated by addition of 1 µM Oligomycin A. <b>C</b>. Glycolytic Reserve Capacity was calculated as the difference between maximal and basal OCR. Data from one replicative experiment is shown (n = 5, ANOVA, Tukey's post test *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001 statistically significant compared to NOSE007; #p<0.05, ##p<0.01, ###p<0.001 statistically significant compared to OVCA420).</p

Bioenergetics Profile of Ovarian Cancer cell lines.

<p><b>A</b>. Plotting Basal ECAR and OCR levels provides a snap-shot of the bioenergetics profiles of the ovarian cancer cell lines studied. OCCC cell lines ES-2 and TOV-21-G as well as OVCAR3 cells display high glycolysis and Oxidative phosphorylation and are therefore classified as highly energetic cells. <b>B</b>. Plotting Glycolytic Reserve against Respiratory reserve indicates that some cells appear to be operating close to their maximal rate, such as ES-2 cells, whereas others have high respiratory reserve (NOSE007) or high glycolytic Reserve (DOV-13, OVCA429). OCCC cell lines are labeled as black triangles, other EOC cell lines as grey circles (OVCA420 as circle with X), and the normal epithelial cell lines NOSE007 as a white square. Data in A and C represents the average of mean OCR and ECAR readings from 3–4 experimental replicates <b>C</b>. Spheroid formation correlates with bioenergetic signature of ovarian cancer cells. Cells were seeded into ULA plates and size (area of spheroid aggregate in pixels) plotted (n = 6).</p

OVCA420 cells have defective mitochondria.

<p><b>A</b>. Mitotracker red staining reveals that OVCA420 cells display defects in mitochondrial morphology compared to NOSE007, ES-2 and OVCA433 cells. Representative images show fragmented mitochondria (a&b, arrows) and the presence of large globular aggregates (c&d, arrows) in OVCA420 cells. <b>B</b>. Assessment of mitochondrial to nuclear DNA ratios by comparison of mtDNA 16S Ct/nDNA 18S Ct ratios in total DNA from ovarian cancer cell lines, using real time PCR analysis. <b>C</b>. OVCA420 cells display enhanced expression of the fission protein Drp1 <b>D</b>. Densitometric quantification of the full length and Drp1 splice variant (n = 3, ANOVA, Tukey's post test *p<0.05, ****p<0.0001 significant difference compared to NOSE007; #p<0.05, ####p<0.0001 significant difference compared to OVCA420). <b>E</b>. OVCA420 cells display a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential as evident by the lack of red JC-1 aggregate accumulation and higher staining for JC-1 green monomers. <b>F</b>. Quantification of red/green JC-1 staining indicative of membrane potential (n = 35 cells, ****p<0.0001, t-test).</p

Additional file 1 of Glycosaminoglycan modifications of betaglycan regulate ectodomain shedding to fine-tune TGF-β signaling responses in ovarian cancer

Additional file 1: Supplementary Figure