Characterizing the Indoor-Outdoor Relationship of Fine Particulate Matter in Non-Heating Season for Urban Residences in Beijing

<div><p>Objective</p><p>Ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) pollution is currently a major public health concern in Chinese urban areas. However, PM_2.5 exposure primarily occurs indoors. Given such, we conducted this study to characterize the indoor-outdoor relationship of PM_2.5 mass concentrations for urban residences in Beijing.</p><p>Methods</p><p>In this study, 24-h real-time indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations were concurrently collected for 41 urban residences in the non-heating season. The diurnal variation of pollutant concentrations was characterized. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the correlation between indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations. Regression analysis with ordinary least square was employed to characterize the influences of a variety of factors on PM_2.5 mass concentration.</p><p>Results</p><p>Hourly ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations were 3–280 μg/m³ with a median of 58 μg/m³, and hourly indoor counterpart were 4–193 μg/m³ with a median of 34 μg/m³. The median indoor/ambient ratio of PM_2.5 mass concentration was 0.62. The diurnal variation of residential indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations tracked with each other well. Strong correlation was found between indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations on the community basis (coefficients: r≥0.90, p<0.0001), and the ambient data explained ≥84% variance of the indoor data. Regression analysis suggested that the variables, such as traffic conditions, indoor smoking activities, indoor cleaning activities, indoor plants and number of occupants, had significant influences on the indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>PM_2.5 of ambient origin made dominant contribution to residential indoor PM_2.5 exposure in the non-heating season under the high ambient fine particle pollution condition. Nonetheless, the large inter-residence variability of infiltration factor of ambient PM_2.5 raised the concern of exposure misclassification when using ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations as exposure surrogates. PM_2.5 of indoor origin still had minor influence on indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations, particularly at 11:00–13:00 and 22:00–0:00. The predictive models suggested that particles from traffic emission, secondary aerosols, particles from indoor smoking, resuspended particles due to indoor cleaning and particles related to indoor plants contributed to indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations in this study. Real-time ventilation measurements and improvement of questionnaire design to involve more variables subject to built environment were recommended to enhance the performance of the predictive models.</p></div

Additional file 1: of Perceptions of overweight by primary carers (mothers/grandmothers) of under five and elementary school-aged children in Bandung, Indonesia: a qualitative study

Kartu Menuju Sehat (KMS- Health Card) for boys aged 0–24 months. Source: http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/info-terkini/Kartu Menuju Sehat KMS.pdf . (PDF 2475 kb

The information of variables subject to building characteristics and human behavior.

<p>The information of variables subject to building characteristics and human behavior.</p

Pearson correlation between indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.

<p>Pearson correlation between indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.</p

Descriptive statistics of the concentrations of pollutants.

<p>a. Valid ambient and indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations were simultaneously available for 33 residences.</p><p>Descriptive statistics of the concentrations of pollutants.</p

Predictive model of indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations.

<p>a. the levels of <i>distance to road</i>: 1- ≤ 193 m, 2–194–270 m, 3–271–425 m, 4- >425 m.</p><p>b. the levels of <i>frequency of furniture cleaning</i>: 1- everyday, 2- some times per week, 3- one time for several weeks.</p><p>c. the levels of <i>smoking</i>: 0- no smoking, 1- yes, 1time, 2- yes, multiple times.</p><p>d. the levels of <i>indoor plants</i>: 1- no plants, 2- a few, 3- many.</p><p>e. the levels of <i>frequency of floor cleaning</i>: 1- everyday, 2- some times per week.</p><p>f. the levels of <i>floor cleaning method</i>: 1- only mop, 2- with mop and broom/vacuum.</p><p>g. the levels of <i>traffic route</i>: 1-arterial road (ring roads and express ways), 2-urban highway, 3-quiet street.</p><p>Predictive model of indoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations.</p

Regression analysis of indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.

<p>Regression analysis of indoor and ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.</p

Diurnal variation of pollutant concentrations.

<p>(Note: error bars in the Fig stand for standard deviation of the normalized pollutant concentrations).</p

Predictive model of ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.

<p>Predictive model of ambient PM_2.5 mass concentrations.</p

Influence of Copper Nanoparticles on the Physical-Chemical Properties of Activated Sludge

<div><p>The physical-chemical properties of activated sludge, such as flocculating ability, hydrophobicity, surface charge, settleability, dewaterability and bacteria extracellular polymer substances (EPS), play vital roles in the normal operation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The nanoparticles released from commercial products will enter WWTPs and can induce potential adverse effects on activated sludge. This paper focused on the effects of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) on these specific physical-chemical properties of activated sludge. It was found that most of these properties were unaffected by the exposure to lower CuNPs concentration (5 ppm), but different observation were made at higher CuNPs concentrations (30 and 50 ppm). At the higher CuNPs concentrations, the sludge surface charge increased and the hydrophobicity decreased, which were attributed to more Cu²⁺ ions released from the CuNPs. The carbohydrate content of EPS was enhanced to defense the toxicity of CuNPs. The flocculating ability was found to be deteriorated due to the increased cell surface charge, the decreased hydrophobicity, and the damaged cell membrane. The worsened flocculating ability made the sludge flocs more dispersed, which further increased the toxicity of the CuNPs by increasing the availability of the CuNPs to the bacteria present in the sludge. Further investigation indicated that the phosphorus removal efficiency decreased at higher CuNPs concentrations, which was consistent with the deteriorated physical-chemical properties of activated sludge. It seems that the physical-chemical properties can be used as an indicator for determining CuNPs toxicity to the bacteria in activated sludge. This work is important because bacteria toxicity effects to the activated sludge caused by nanoparticles may lead to the deteriorated treatment efficiency of wastewater treatment, and it is therefore necessary to find an easy way to indicate this toxicity.</p></div