The microbiological quality of food in developing countries, comparison with the European system

Food safety varies from one country to another. The richest countries are implementing regulatory systems such as in Europe with the Regulation 178/2002 forcing food manufacturers to provide safe food to the public. Most developing countries cannot afford this type of expensive system despite an increased awareness of governments on food safety. Trade within developing countries is generally undemanding in food safety. These countries usually have no national regulations or it is poorly enforced because of lack of resources or political will. In some of the poorest countries, access to drinking water is extremely limited. There are three types of countries, those whose food safety status is not mastered, those where food safety status is mastered by the population (overheating food) and those whose food safety status is mastered by regulation. To all this are added the countries suffering war or climate. In safety terms, the main problem is the abundance of pathogenic microorganisms for the digestive system. Sanitary markers (E. coli) are often present in high quantities. More serious illnesses like cholera occasionally affect the poorest countries (Vibrio cholerae). Other hazards could affect people without food safety surveillance such as mycotoxins, carcinogenic molecules, difficult and expensive to analyze or antibiotic resistance... In addition, countries without regulation or performed analytical system are seen to confront of denial export, sometimes simply due to a break in the cold chain or a lack of traceability. In most developing countries, the expertise exists but is rarely used. (Résumé d'auteur

New strategies of traceability for determining the geographical origin of foodstuffs: Creation biological bar-code by (PCR-DGGE)

The determination of geographical origin is a demand of the traceability system of import-export foodstuff. One hypothesis of tracing the source of a product is by analyzing in a global way the microbial communities of the food and links statistically this analysis to the geographical origin of the food (Montet et al., 2004). The molecular technique employing 26S rDNA profiles generated by PCR-DGGE was used to detect the variation in the yeast community structures of fruits (El Sheikha et al., 2009). We applied this new technique on Physalis fruits from three countries (Egypt, Colombia, Uganda) and on shea tree from four countries (Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, Uganda). The DGGE gels showed some significant differences in the migration patterns. However, the duplicates for each sampling location gave statistically similar DGGE patterns throughout the study. We demonstrated that there was a link between the yeast populations and the geographical area. When the 26S rDNA profiles were analyzed by multivariate analysis, distinct microbial communities were detected. The band profiles from different countries were different and were specific for each country and could be used as a bar code to discriminate the origin of the fruits. This method is a new traceability tool which provides fruit products with a unique bar code and makes it possible to trace back the fruits to their original country. Physalis is included in the priority list of many governments¿ horticulture and fruit export plan. It is exported from several countries including Colombia, Egypt, Zimbabwe and South Africa, but Colombia stands out as one of the largest producers, consumers and exporters. Colombia exports of Physalis in 2004 were worth 14 millions USD (El Sheikha et al., 2008a). In Egypt, economical importance of Physalis is rising, due to, achieving a great success in local, Arabic and European markets (El Sheikha, 2004). Physalis as the whole plant has many medicinal properties, including antipyretic, depurative, diuretic, pectoral, and vermifuge. A decoction is used in the treatment of abscesses, cough, fevers or sore throat (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The pulp is nutritious, containing particularly high levels of carotenoids, minerals, essential amino acids and vitamin C (El Sheikha et al., 2008b). Regarding shea tree fruits, only seven countries have statistics. Nigeria accounts for more than 60% of the production of shea butter in 2005. It is followed by Mali, Ghana and Burkina Faso, which together account for just under a third of world production in 2005. In Europe, shea butter is used mainly (95%) by the chocolate industry. The quantities exported to Japan, the United States or Switzerland would be mainly used for cosmetic or pharmacological (FAOSTAT, 2007). (Texte intégral

Universal biological bar-code for determining the geographical origin of fruits by using PCR-DGGE

The determination of geographical origin is a demand of the traceability system of import-export foodstuff. One hypothesis of tracing the source of a product is by analyzing in a global way the microbial communities of the food and links statistically this analysis to the geographical origin of the food (El Sheikha et al., 2009a). Physalis is included in the priority list of many governments¿ horticulture and fruit export plan. It is exported from several countries including Colombia, Egypt, Zimbabwe and South Africa, but Colombia stands out as one of the largest producers, consumers and exporters. Colombia exports of Physalis in 2004 were worth 14 millions USD (El Sheikha et al., 2008). In Egypt, economical importance of Physalis is rising, due to, achieving a great success in local, Arabic and European markets (El Sheikha, 2004). Physalis as the whole plant has many medicinal properties, including antipyretic, depurative, diuretic, pectoral, and vermifuge. A decoction is used in the treatment of abscesses, cough, fevers or sore throat (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The pulp is nutritious, containing particularl

La qualité microbiologique des aliments dans les pays en développement

La sureté sanitaire est variable d'un pays à l'autre. Les pays les plus riches mettent en place des systèmes réglementaires comme par exemple en Europe avec la réglementation 178/2002 qui force les industriels de l'agroalimentaire à fournir des aliments sains à la population. La plupart des pays en développement ne peuvent se payer ce type de système couteux malgré une conscience accrue des gouvernants sur la sureté sanitaire. Le commerce intérieur des PVD est en général peu exigeant en sureté sanitaire. Il n'a généralement pas de réglementation nationale ou elle est peu appliquée faute de moyens ou de volonté politique. L'accès à l'eau potable est extrêmement limité. Il existe donc trois type de pays, ceux dont l'état sanitaire est non maitrisé, ceux où l'état sanitaire est maitrisé par la population (surchauffe des aliments) et ceux dont l'état sanitaire est maitrisé par la réglementation. A tout cela s'ajoute les pays en guerre ou en souffrance climatique. En terme sanitaire, le principal problème reste la profusion des microorganismes pathogènes pour le système digestif. Les marqueurs de salubrité (E. coli) sont souvent présents en très haute quantité. Des maladies plus graves de type choléra touchent de temps à autre les pays les plus pauvres (Vibrio cholerae). D'autres dangers guettent également les populations sans surveillance sanitaire comme les mycotoxines, molécules cancérigènes difficiles et couteuses à analyser ou encore les résistances aux antibiotiques. De plus les pays sans réglementation ou système analytique performant se voient confronter à des refus d'export quelques fois simplement par une rupture de la chaine de froid ou un manque de traçabilité. Dans la plupart des PVD, l'expertise existe mais n'est que rarement utilisée. (Texte intégral

Universal biological bar-code for determining the geographical origin of fruits by using PCR-DGGE

Introduction: The determination of geographical origin is a demand of the traceability system of import-export foodstuff. One hypothesis of tracing the source of a product is by analyzing in a global way the microbial communities of the food and links statistically this analysis to the geographical origin of the food (El sheikha et al., 2009a). Physalis is included in the priority list of many governments¿ horticulture and fruit export plan. It is exported from several countries including Colombia, Egypt, Zimbabwe and South Africa, but Colombia stands out as one of the largest producers, consumers and exporters. Colombia exports of Physalis in 2004 were worth 14 millions USD (El Sheikha et al., 2008). In Egypt, economical importance of Physalis is rising, due to, achieving a great success in local, Arabic and European markets (El Sheikha, 2004). Physalis as the whole plant has many medicinal properties, including antipyretic, depurative, diuretic, pectoral, and vermifuge. A decoction is used in the treatment of abscesses, cough, fevers or sore throat (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The pulp is nutritious, containing particularly high levels of carotenoids, minerals, essential amino acids and vitamin C (El Sheikha et al., 2009b). Regarding Shea tree fruits, only seven countries have statistics. Nigeria accounts for more than 60% of the production of shea butter in 2005. It is followed by Mali, Ghana and Burkina Faso, which together account for just under a third of world production in 2005. In Europe, Shea butter is used mainly (95%) by the chocolate industry (FAOSTAT, 2007). The quantities exported to Japan, the United States or Switzerland would be mainly used for cosmetic or pharmacological (UNCTAD, 2001). Purpose: We applied a molecular technique employing 28S rDNA profiles generated by PCR-DGGE as a new traceability technique to detect the variation in fungal community structures of Physalis fruits from four countries (Colombia, Uganda, Egypt, Madagascar) and Shea tree from four countries (Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, Ghana). Results: The DGGE gels showed some significant differences in the migration patterns. However, the duplicates for each sampling location gave statistically similar DGGE patterns throughout the study. We demonstrated that there was a link between the fungi populations and the geographical area. When the 28S rDNA profiles were analyzed by multivariate analysis, distinct microbial communities were detected. The band profiles from different countries were different and were specific for each country and could be used as a bar code to discriminate the origin of the fruits. Significance of study: This method is a new traceability tool which provides fruit with a unique bar code and makes it possible to trace back the fruits to their original country. (Résumé d'auteur

Diversity of fruit origin by using 26S rDNA fingerprinting of yeast communities by PCR-DGGE: An application to Shea tree fruits

The economic importance of Shea tree fruits has been rising and achieving a great success in African, American, European markets. In Europe, Shea butter is used mainly (95%) by the chocolate industry. The quantities exported to Japan, the United States or Switzerland would be mainly used for cosmetic or pharmacological (FAOSTAT, 2007). The traceability of fruits is only documentary. In case of doubt or fraud, no standardized analysis makes it possible to trace back the origin of the fruit. The aim of this study is to use a new tool of tracing the products (PCR-DGGE) as a molecular technique to analyse in a unique step all the yeasts present on the fruit to create the linkage between yeast communities and the geographical origin.(Résumé d'auteur

High physical properties of cashew nut shell biochars in the adsorbtion of mycotoxins

Biochars were produced from cashew nut shell by pyrolysis on tubular oven at 400, 600 and 800°C.They were thenanalyzed and characterized (CHN, volatiles and pH);andwere tested at different pH (4.15, 6.54 and 9.05) under different adsorption conditions (filtration and stirring) for their ability tocapture aflatoxins and ochratoxin A (OTA). Above 25 mg of biochar in 5 mL of water-methanol mixturecontaining the mycotoxins (aflatoxins and OTA), all biochars adsorbedup to 100% of the aflatoxins at all pH (4.15, 6.54 and 9.05) and under all conditions (filtration or stirring) and pyrolysis temperature.Biochars also showed no effect on aflatoxins adsorption. Great differences were observed for the adsorption rates of OTA in function of the studied conditions. The adsorption efficiency of biochar for OTA increased with the increase of the pyrolysis temperature, which increases the specific surface area. The method used (filtration or stirring) had a strong influence on the adsorption rate, ranging from 29% by filtration up to 52% for 1000 mg of a biochar in 5 mL of water-methanol solution;and stirring increasedthe adsorption rate. In general, pH had less effect on the adsorption rate of OTA (2-5%). OTA best adsorption rate was observed for biochar produced at 800°C. The affinity between biochars and aflatoxins is very strong because atthe same experimental conditions and equal masses, biochars adsorb more aflatoxins than OTA (5 times more)