Modellierung und Simulation der Dynamik und des Kontakts von Reifenprofilblöcken

Die Kontaktverhältnisse zwischen Reifen und Fahrbahn bestimmen die maximal übertragbaren Beschleunigungs-, Brems- und Seitenkräfte des Fahrzeugs und sind daher für die Fahrsicherheit von großer Bedeutung. In dieser Arbeit wird ein Modell zur numerisch effizienten Simulation der hochfrequenten Dynamik einzelner Reifenprofilblöcke entwickelt. Der vorgestellte Modellansatz nutzt einerseits die Vorteile der Finite-Elemente-Methode, welche die Bauteilstruktur detailliert auflösen kann, bei der jedoch lange Rechenzeiten in Kauf genommen werden. Andererseits profitiert der vorgestellte Modellansatz von den Vorteilen stark vereinfachter Mehrkörpersysteme, welche die Berechnung der hochfrequenten Dynamik und akustischer Phänomene erlauben, jedoch strukturdynamische Effekte und das Kontaktverhalten in der Bodenaufstandsfläche des Reifens nur begrenzt abbilden können. Das hier vorgestellte Modell berücksichtigt in einem modularen Ansatz die Effekte der Strukturdynamik, der lokalen Reibwertcharakteristik, der nichtlinearen Wechselwirkungen durch den Kontakt mit der rauen Fahrbahnoberfläche und des lokalen Verschleißes. Die erforderlichen Modellparameter werden durch geeignete Experimente bestimmt. Ein Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt in der Untersuchung reibungsselbsterregter Profilblockschwingungen bei Variation der Modell- und Prozessparameter. Zur realistischen Betrachtung des Reifenprofilblockverhaltens erfolgt eine Erweiterung des Modells um eine Abrollkinematik, die tiefere Einblicke in die dynamischen Vorgänge in der Bodenaufstandsfläche des Reifens ermöglicht. Diese Simulationen lassen eine Zuordnung der aus der Literatur bekannten zeitlichen Abfolge von Einlaufphase, Haftphase, Gleitphase und Ausschnappphase zu. Es zeigen sich bei bestimmten Kombinationen aus Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit und Schlupfwert ausgeprägte Stick-Slip-Schwingungen im akustisch relevanten Frequenzbereich. Das Modell erlaubt die Untersuchung des Einflusses der Profilblockgeometrie, der Materialparameter, der Fahrbahneigenschaften sowie der Betriebszustände auf den resultierenden Reibwert, auf das lokale Verschleißverhalten sowie auf das Auftreten hochfrequenter reibungsselbsterregter Schwingungen. Somit ermöglicht das Modell ein vertieftes Verständnis der Vorgänge im Reifen-Fahrbahn-Kontakt und der auftretenden Wechselwirkungen zwischen Struktur- und Kontaktmechanik. Es kann eine Basis für zukünftige Optimierungen des Profilblocks zur Verbesserung wesentlicher Reifeneigenschaften wie Kraftschlussverhalten, Verschleiß und Akustik bilden.:Formelverzeichnis VII Kurzfassung X Abstract XI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Zielsetzung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Gliederung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 Stand des Wissens 6 2.1 Mechanische Eigenschaften von Elastomeren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.2 Elastomerreibung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.2.1 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Hysteresereibung . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.2 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Adhäsionsreibung . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.3 Phänomenologische Beschreibung von Elastomerreibung . . . . . . 13 2.3 Verschleiß von Profilblöcken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Entstehung von Stick-Slip-Schwingungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5 Profilblockmodelle und -simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.6 Experimentelle Einrichtungen zur Untersuchung von Profilblöcken . . . . . 42 2.6.1 Schwerlasttribometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.6.2 IDS-Tribometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.6.3 Mini-mue-road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.6.4 Linear Friction Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.6.5 Prüfstand für Stollenmessungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.6.6 Hochgeschwindigkeits-Abrollprüfstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.6.7 Hochgeschwindigkeits-Linearprüfstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.7 Experimentelle Reibwertbestimmung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3 Profilblockmodell 55 3.1 Modularer Modellansatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.2 Modul 1: Strukturdynamik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.2.1 Transformations- und Reduktionsverfahren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.2.2 Implementierung in das Gesamtmodell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3 Modul 2: Lokale Reibwertcharakteristik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.1 Einflussgrößen auf den Reibwert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.2 Numerische Behandlung der Reibwertberechnung . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4 Modul 3: Nichtlineare Kontaktsteifigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.1 Lokale Kontaktbetrachtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4.2 Kontaktalgorithmus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.5 Modul 4: Lokaler Verschleiß . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.1 Vorgehen zur Verschleißmodellierung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.2 Implementierung in das Gesamtmodell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4 Parameterbestimmung 84 4.1 Strukturdynamische Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.1.1 Bestimmung des Elastizitätsmoduls und der Dämpfung . . . . . . . 84 4.1.2 Optimierung der Modenanzahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.2 Bestimmung der Reibcharakteristik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.3 Bestimmung der nichtlinearen Kontaktsteifigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.4 Bestimmung der Verschleißparameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5 Simulationen 100 5.1 Betrachtung eines gleitenden Profilblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.1.1 Simulationen bei hoher Gleitgeschwindigkeit ohne Verschleiß . . . . 100 5.1.2 Simulationen bei hoher Gleitgeschwindigkeit mit Verschleiß . . . . 103 5.1.3 Profilblockverhalten bei niedriger Gleitgeschwindigkeit . . . . . . . 106 5.1.4 Simulationen mit Normalkraftvorgabe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.1.5 Vergleich Experiment-Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.1.6 Variation der Profilblockgeometrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.2 Betrachtung eines abrollenden Profilblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.2.1 Abrollkinematik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.2.2 Einfluss der Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.2.3 Einfluss des Schlupfwerts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.2.4 Einfluss des Kontaktdrucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.2.5 Kontaktkraftbetrachtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6 Zusammenfassung 139 Literatur 143The contact conditions between tyre and road are responsible for the maximum acceleration, braking and side forces of a vehicle. Therefore, they have a large impact on the driving safety. Within this work a numerically efficient model for the simulation of the high-frequency dynamics of single tyre tread blocks is developed. The presented modelling approach benefits the advantage of the finite element method to resolve the component structure in detail. However, a long computation time is accepted for these finite element models. Moreover, the presented modelling approach makes use of the advantage of simplified multibody systems to calculate the high-frequency dynamics and acoustic phenomena. However, structural effects and the contact behaviour in the tyre contact patch can be covered only to a minor degree. The model treated here considers the effects of structural dynamics, the local friction characteristic, the non-linear interaction due to the contact with the rough road surface and local wear. The required model parameters are determined by appropriate experiments. One focus of this work is the investigation of self-excited tread block vibrations under variation of the model and process parameters. In order to realistically investigate the tread block behaviour the model is extended with regard to rolling kinematics which provides a deeper insight into the dynamic processes in the tyre contact patch. The corresponding simulations allow the allocation of the run-in phase, sticking phase, sliding phase and snap-out which is reported in the literature. For certain combinations of vehicle velocity and slip value pronounced stick-slip vibrations occur within the acoustically relevant frequency range. The model enables to study the influence of the tread block geometry, the material properties, the road surface characteristics and the operating conditions on the resulting tread block friction coefficient, local tread block wear and the occurrence of high-frequency self-excited vibrations. The simulation results provide a distinct understanding of the processes in the tyre/road contact and the interactions between structural mechanics and contact mechanics. They can be a basis for future tread block optimisations with respect to essential tyre properties such as traction, wear and acoustic phenomena.:Formelverzeichnis VII Kurzfassung X Abstract XI 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Zielsetzung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Gliederung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 Stand des Wissens 6 2.1 Mechanische Eigenschaften von Elastomeren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.2 Elastomerreibung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.2.1 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Hysteresereibung . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.2 Modelle zur Beschreibung von Adhäsionsreibung . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.3 Phänomenologische Beschreibung von Elastomerreibung . . . . . . 13 2.3 Verschleiß von Profilblöcken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Entstehung von Stick-Slip-Schwingungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5 Profilblockmodelle und -simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.6 Experimentelle Einrichtungen zur Untersuchung von Profilblöcken . . . . . 42 2.6.1 Schwerlasttribometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.6.2 IDS-Tribometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.6.3 Mini-mue-road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.6.4 Linear Friction Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.6.5 Prüfstand für Stollenmessungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.6.6 Hochgeschwindigkeits-Abrollprüfstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.6.7 Hochgeschwindigkeits-Linearprüfstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.7 Experimentelle Reibwertbestimmung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3 Profilblockmodell 55 3.1 Modularer Modellansatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.2 Modul 1: Strukturdynamik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.2.1 Transformations- und Reduktionsverfahren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.2.2 Implementierung in das Gesamtmodell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3 Modul 2: Lokale Reibwertcharakteristik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.1 Einflussgrößen auf den Reibwert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.2 Numerische Behandlung der Reibwertberechnung . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4 Modul 3: Nichtlineare Kontaktsteifigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.1 Lokale Kontaktbetrachtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4.2 Kontaktalgorithmus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.5 Modul 4: Lokaler Verschleiß . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.1 Vorgehen zur Verschleißmodellierung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.5.2 Implementierung in das Gesamtmodell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4 Parameterbestimmung 84 4.1 Strukturdynamische Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.1.1 Bestimmung des Elastizitätsmoduls und der Dämpfung . . . . . . . 84 4.1.2 Optimierung der Modenanzahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.2 Bestimmung der Reibcharakteristik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.3 Bestimmung der nichtlinearen Kontaktsteifigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.4 Bestimmung der Verschleißparameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5 Simulationen 100 5.1 Betrachtung eines gleitenden Profilblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.1.1 Simulationen bei hoher Gleitgeschwindigkeit ohne Verschleiß . . . . 100 5.1.2 Simulationen bei hoher Gleitgeschwindigkeit mit Verschleiß . . . . 103 5.1.3 Profilblockverhalten bei niedriger Gleitgeschwindigkeit . . . . . . . 106 5.1.4 Simulationen mit Normalkraftvorgabe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.1.5 Vergleich Experiment-Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.1.6 Variation der Profilblockgeometrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.2 Betrachtung eines abrollenden Profilblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.2.1 Abrollkinematik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.2.2 Einfluss der Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.2.3 Einfluss des Schlupfwerts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.2.4 Einfluss des Kontaktdrucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.2.5 Kontaktkraftbetrachtungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6 Zusammenfassung 139 Literatur 14

Testing of minerals and industrial by-products as oxygen carriers for chemical-looping combustion in a circulating fluidized-bed 300W laboratory reactor

Chemical-looping combustion (CLC) is a promising technology for future energy production with inherent CO2 separation. One approach is to use minerals or industrial by-products as oxygen carriers to reduce the costs of the process. This study focuses on the investigation of two iron-based oxygen carriers, which were examined under continuous operation in a 300 W laboratory reactor. Ilmenite is an iron–titanium oxide mineral, whereas iron oxide scale (IOS) is obtained as a by-product from the rolling of sheet steel. Syngas was used as a fuel – pure and with steam addition to suppress the formation of solid carbon. During the experiments the variables reactor temperature, fuel flow and air flow were changed. Furthermore the effect of steam addition to the fuel was investigated. Particle properties were compared over the span of 85 h of continuous operation for ilmenite and 37 h for IOS. The analysis is based on gas measurements from the actual CLC operation, but also on scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffractometry and measurements of BET surface area and density. With ilmenite oxygen carrier it was possible to achieve full conversion of syngas up to about 190 Wth fuel equivalent at 900 °C. With design fuel flow of about 300 Wth at 900 °C the combustion efficiency was above 98%. There was almost no visible difference in reactivity of fresh activated particles and those used for 85 h. Combustion efficiency up to 99% was achieved with IOS oxygen carrier at 900 °C and about 100 Wth fuel equivalent. At 300 Wth fuel equivalent and 900 °C a combustion efficiency of only 90% could be reached. Both oxygen carriers were operated for tens of hours, which allowed for a better understanding of lifetime behavior and other basic characteristics. Whereas ilmenite oxygen-carrier particles were mostly stable over the course of 85 h of experiments, a large fraction of IOS oxygen-carrier particles had disintegrated to fines after only 37 h of experiments. The gathered data indicates that both oxygen carriers could be an alternative to synthesized particles, though with more drawbacks for IOS than for ilmenite

Chemical-looping combustion and chemical-looping reforming of kerosene in a circulating fluidized-bed 300W laboratory reactor

The reaction between a nickel-based oxygen carrier and a liquid fuel has been demonstrated in a chemical-looping reactor with continuous particle circulating. An injection system was constructed, in which sulfur-free kerosene was evaporated, mixed with superheated steam and fed directly into the lab scale chemical-looping reactor. A nickel-based oxygen carrier composed of 40 wt% NiO and 60 wt% MgO-ZrO2 was used for both chemical-looping combustion (CLC) and chemical-looping reforming (CLR) experiments, which were performed for about 34 h and 20 h, respectively. For the CLC experiments, 95-99% of the fuel carbon was converted to CO2 and only a minute amount of hydrocarbons was detected in the off-gas. For the CLR experiments, synthesis gas was produced with concentrations of hydrocarbons as low as 0.01%. The particles were analyzed before and after the experiments using XRD, SEM, BET surface area and particle size distribution. It was shown that it is possible to use liquid fuel in a continuous chemical-looping process and also achieve nearly complete fuel conversion. With a nickel-based oxygen carrier virtually all hydrocarbon could be fully oxidized

Chemical-looping combustion of synthetic biomass-volatiles with manganese-ore oxygen carriers

Carbon capture and storage of CO2 from combustion of biomass, i.e., bio-energy carbon capture and storage (BECCS), makes it possible to obtain so-called negative emissions – the atmosphere is cleansed from carbon dioxide. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the suitability of different manganese ores as oxygen carriers in chemical-looping combustion of biomass fuels. For this screening study, a laboratory-scale, circulating fluidized-bed CLC system with a nominal fuel input of 300 Wth was used. The primary focus was to investigate the reactivity of these oxygen carriers towards biomass fuels, and find a reactive oxygen carrier with sufficient mechanical stability that could be suitable for large-scale chemical-looping combustion of biomass. A synthetic “biomass volatiles” gas was used to study how the different gas components react with the oxygen-carrier particles. Additional experiments were conducted with methane and a syngas. Parameter studies concerning temperature and specific fuel-reactor bed mass (bed mass per fuel thermal power in kg/MWth) were carried out. With the synthetic biomass volatiles, conversion of fuel carbon to CO2 as high as 97.6% was achieved. For a majority of the investigated ores, essentially all C2 and C3 hydrocarbons were converted, as well as a very high fraction of the CO. Reactivity towards CH4 was generally lower, but improved at higher temperatures. The resistance of the oxygen carriers towards mechanical degradation was measured in a jet-cup attrition test rig. The measured attrition was estimated as “intermediate” for four of the five tested materials, while one of the ores displayed high attrition

Chemical-Looping Combustion with Fuel Oil in a 10 kW Pilot Plant

A fuel reactor with a fuel-injection system for liquid fuels was designed and built for a chemical-looping reactor system with the nominal fuel input of 10 kWth. The gas velocities in the riser section and at the gas-distribution nozzles of this unit are comparable to those of industrial circulating fluidized-bed boilers. Proof-of-concept experiments were performed with a calcium manganite-based oxygen carrier and a fuel oil with low sulfur content. Fuel conversion was high but not complete, and most of the fuel carbon was converted to CO2 in the fuel reactor. Long-term experiments were performed using an ilmenite oxygen-carrier. The oxygen carrier was exposed to fluidization at hot conditions (more than 600°C) for about 204 h, out of which fuel was injected during a total of 66.6 h. The parameters temperature, fuel flow, steam flow in the fuel reactor, fluidization medium in the fuel reactor, and air flow in the air reactor were varied to observe trends in fuel conversion. Most of the experiments were carried out with a fuel flow corresponding to 4 kWth and an oxygen carrier-to-fuel ratio of about 2100 kg/MWth. At 1050°C the fuel could be oxidized to about 87%, and up to 88% of all carbon leaving the fuel reactor was in the form of CO2. No defluidization or agglomeration problems were experienced over the course of the experimental campaign

Applying machine learning algorithms in estimating the performance of heterogeneous, multi-component materials as oxygen carriers for chemical-looping processes

Heterogeneous, multi-component materials such as industrial tailings or by-products, along with naturally occurring materials, such as ores, have been intensively investigated as candidate oxygen carriers for chemical-looping processes. However, these materials have highly variable compositions, and this strongly influences their chemical-looping performance. Here, using machine learning techniques, we estimate the performance of heterogeneous, multi-component materials as oxygen carriers for chemical-looping. Experimental data for 19 manganese ores chosen as potential chemical-looping oxygen carriers were used to create a so-called training database. This database has been used to train several supervised artificial neural network models (ANN), which were used to predict the reactivity of the oxygen carriers with different fuels and the oxygen transfer capacity with only the knowledge of reactor bed temperature, elemental composition, and mechanical properties of the manganese ores. This novel approach explores ways of dealing with the training dataset, learning algorithms and topology of ANN models to achieve enhanced prediction precision. Stacked neural networks with a bootstrap resampling technique have been applied to achieve high precision and robustness on new input data, and the confidence intervals were used to assess the precision of these predictions. The current results indicate that the best trained ANNs can produce highly accurate predictions for both the training database and the unseen data with the high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.94) and low mean absolute error (MAE = 0.057). We envision that the application of these ANNs and other machine learning algorithms will accelerate the development of oxygen carrying materials for a range of chemical-looping applications and offer a rapid screening tool for new potential oxygen carriers

Oxygen-Carrier Development of Calcium Manganite–Based Materials with Perovskite Structure for Chemical-Looping Combustion of Methane

The present work is related to the upscaling of calcium manganite–based oxygen-carrier materials, which have a perovskite structure, both with respect to the use of inexpensive raw materials, i.e., instead of pure chemicals, and the upscaling of production to multitonne batches. Results are presented from the two different stages of material development, i.e., raw material selection and upscaling. The evaluation involves both operation in chemical-looping combustor units of 300 W and 10 kW, and material characterization. In the latter unit, the gas velocities in the riser and in the grid-jet zone of the gas distributor come close to gas velocities of industrial-scale units and, therefore, this unit is also used to assess particle lifetime. Results from the various chemical-looping combustion units and oxygen-carrier materials produced from various raw materials of both high and low purity show that very high degrees of fuel conversion can be reached while achieving very high oxygen-carrier lifetimes. The composition of the oxygen-carrier materials seems robust and flexible with respect to the precursors used in its manufacturing

A Scale-Up Project for Operating a 115 MWth Biomass-Fired CFB boiler with Oxygen Carriers as Bed Material

Oxygen Carrier Aided Combustion (OCAC) is a concept that uses an oxygen-active bed material to increase the overall efficiency in fluidized bed (FB) combustors. The introduction of oxygen carriers (OCs) in existing FB plants is an attractive opportunity to investigate OCs under industrially-relevant conditions at a low economic risk. In this way, important experience and knowledge of the physiochemical properties of OCs can be gained during long-term operation, which in turn can be used for the scale-up of oxygen-looping techniques, e.g. chemical-looping combustion. The overall aim of this experimental study was to investigate, develop and collect data to increase the knowledge of how OCs can be deployed in commercial FB boilers, while at the same time granting the plant operator benefits from an increased revenue. This paper summarizes the first results from an experimental campaign performed during three weeks of OCAC operation in a 115 MWth commercial CFB boiler, which is fired with a mix of recycled waste-wood and wood chips. During the campaign, the silica-sand bed material was gradually replaced by the mineral ilmenite. It was shown that ilmenite operation, in comparison to operation with silica-sand, facilitated a reduction in the air surplus by as much as 30 %, while increasing the boiler load from 115 MWth to 123 MWth. During ilmenite operation no problems related to the external or internal bed-material logistics nor in the overall boiler operation. However, during ilmenite operation slightly higher emissions of NOx and consumption of ammonia were detected in comparison to operation with silica-sand

Experimental investigation of chemical-looping combustion and chemical-looping gasification of biomass-based fuels using steel converter slag as oxygen carrier

Chemical-looping combustion (CLC) is a combustion process with inherent separation of CO2, which is achieved by oxidizing the fuel with a solid oxygen carrier rather than with air. As fuel and combustion air are never mixed, no gas separation is necessary and, consequently, there is no direct energy penalty for the separation of gases. The most common form of design of chemical-looping combustion systems uses circulating fluidized beds, which is an established and widely spread technology.Experiments were conducted in two different laboratory-scale CLC reactors with continuous fuel feeding and nominal fuel inputs of 300 Wth and 10 kWth, respectively. As oxygen carrier material, ground steel converter slag from the Linz–Donawitz process was used. This material is the second largest flow in an integrated steel mill, and it is available in huge quantities, for which there is currently limited demand. Steel converter slag consists mainly of oxides of Ca, Mg, Fe, Si and Mn. In the 300 W unit chemical-looping combustion experiments were conducted with model fuels syngas (50 vol% H2 in CO) and methane at varied reactor temperature, fuel input and oxygen-carrier circulation. Further, the ability of the oxygen-carrier material to release oxygen to the gas phase was investigated. In the 10 kW unit, the fuels used for combustion tests were steam-exploded pellets and wood char. The purpose of these experiments was to study more realistic biomass fuels and to assess the lifetime of the slag when employed as oxygen carrier. In addition, chemical-looping gasification was investigated in the 10 kW unit using both, steam-exploded pellets and regular wood pellets as fuels.In the 300 W unit, up to 99.9 % of syngas conversion was achieved at 280 kg/MWth and 900 \ub0C, while the highest conversion achieved with methane was 60 % at 280 kg/MWth and 950 \ub0C. The material’s ability to release oxygen to the gas phase, i.e., CLOU property, was developed during the initial hours with fuel operation, and the activated material released 1-2 vol% of O2 into a flow of argon between 850 \ub0C and 950 \ub0C. The material’s initial low density decreased somewhat during CLC operation.In the 10 kW, CO2 yields of 75-82 % were achieved with all three fuels tested in CLC conditions, while carbon leakage was very low in most cases, i.e., below 1 %. With wood char as fuel, at a fuel input of 1.8 kWth, a CO2 yield of 92 % could be achieved. The carbon fraction of C2-species was usually below 2.5 % and no C3-species were detected. During chemical-looping gasification investigation a raw gas was produced that contained mostly H2. The oxygen carrier lifetime was estimated to be about 110-170 h. However, due to its high availability and potentially low cost, this type of slag could be suitable for large-scale operation

Avoiding CO2 capture effort and cost for negative CO2 emissions using industrial waste in chemical-looping combustion/gasification of biomass

Chemical-looping combustion (CLC) is a combustion process with inherent separation of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is achieved by oxidizing the fuel with a solid oxygen carrier rather than with air. As fuel and combustion air are never mixed, no gas separation is necessary and, consequently, there is no direct cost or energy penalty for the separation of gases. The most common form of design of chemical-looping combustion systems uses circulating fluidized beds, which is an established and widely spread technology. Experiments were conducted in two different laboratory-scale CLC reactors with continuous fuel feeding and nominal fuel inputs of 300\ua0Wth and 10\ua0kWth, respectively. As an oxygen carrier material, ground steel converter slag from the Linz–Donawitz process was used. This material is the second largest flow in an integrated steel mill and it is available in huge quantities, for which there is currently limited demand. Steel converter slag consists mainly of oxides of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), silicon (Si), and manganese (Mn). In the 300\ua0W unit, chemical-looping combustion experiments were conducted with model fuels syngas (50\ua0vol% hydrogen (H2) in carbon monoxide (CO)) and methane (CH4) at varied reactor temperature, fuel input, and oxygen-carrier circulation. Further, the ability of the oxygen-carrier material to release oxygen to the gas phase was investigated. In the 10\ua0kW unit, the fuels used for combustion tests were steam-exploded pellets and wood char. The purpose of these experiments was to study more realistic biomass fuels and to assess the lifetime of the slag when employed as oxygen carrier. In addition, chemical-looping gasification was investigated in the 10\ua0kW unit using both steam-exploded pellets and regular wood pellets as fuels. In the 300\ua0W unit, up to 99.9% of syngas conversion was achieved at 280\ua0kg/MWth and 900\ua0\ub0C, while the highest conversion achieved with methane was 60% at 280\ua0kg/MWth and 950\ua0\ub0C. The material’s ability to release oxygen to the gas phase, i.e., CLOU property, was developed during the initial hours with fuel operation and the activated material released 1–2\ua0vol% of O2 into a flow of argon between 850 and 950\ua0\ub0C. The material’s initial low density decreased somewhat during CLC operation. In the 10\ua0kW, CO2 yields of 75–82% were achieved with all three fuels tested in CLC conditions, while carbon leakage was very low in most cases, i.e., below 1%. With wood char as fuel, at a fuel input of 1.8 kWth, a CO2 yield of 92% could be achieved. The carbon fraction of C2-species was usually below 2.5% and no C3-species were detected. During chemical-looping gasification investigation a raw gas was produced that contained mostly H2. The oxygen carrier lifetime was estimated to be about 110–170\ua0h. However, due to its high availability and potentially low cost, this type of slag could be suitable for large-scale operation. The study also includes a discussion on the potential advantages of this technology over other technologies available for Bio-Energy Carbon Capture and Storage, BECCS. Furthermore, the paper calls for the use of adequate policy instruments to foster the development of this kind of technologies, with great potential for cost reduction but presently without commercial application because of lack of incentives