Psychological approaches to understanding satiation and satiety

Satiation, the processes leading to termination of a meal, and satiety, the state of inhibition over eating after a meal, both arise through the integration of cognitive, sensory and post-ingestive signals arising from consumption of foods and drinks. Although signals arising from nutrient ingestion are important, especially for satiety, both satiation and satiety are influenced by more cognitive aspects of the consumer experience. Recent research in particular highlights the importance of expectations about the likely effects of consumption and memories of effects of related products as elements of both satiation and satiety. This brief review assesses some of these psychological influences and discusses their implications for effective product development

Opioids and human ingestive behaviour

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Flavor, satiety and food intake

This unique book provides a comprehensive review of the latest science on a key aspect of appetite control. It brings together contributions by leading researchers worldwide who approach this complex, multifaceted issue from a variety of differing perspectives, including those of food science, psychology, nutrition, and medicine, among others. It is well known that products that require greater oral processing tend to be more sating. At the same time, the orosensory exposure hypothesis holds that flavor and texture in the mouth are critical in determining meal-size. They may act as key predictors of nutritional benefits and so promote better processing of foods. These two related ideas are at the forefront of current thinking on flavor-satiety interactions. Yet, until Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake no book has offered an integrated treatment of both concepts. The only single-source reference of its kind, it brings health professionals, product developers, and students up to speed on the latest thinking and practices in this fascinating and important area of research. •Provides readers with a unique and timely summary of critical recent developments in research on the impact of flavor on satiety •Explores a topic of central importance both for food professionals seeking to develop healthier products and health professionals concerned with obesity and over-eating •Brings together relevant topics from the fields of food science, psychology, nutrition and medicine Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake provides product developers with valuable information on how to integrate sensory evaluation with product formulation and marketing. It will also serve as a useful resource for health professionals and is a must-read for students of a range of disciplines in which appetite and satiety are studied

Does caffeine's effect on mood and performance explain its ability to alter drink preference?

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Research data exploring how uncontrolled, emotional and restrained eating relate to impulsivity and risk taking

These data were collected between November 2020 and March 2021, and explored the inter-relationships between eating behaviour measured using the 18-item Three Factor Eating Questionnaire, and three measures of impulsivity and risk taking: (a) the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), (b) behaviour on the Balloon Analogue Risk task (BART) and (c)  the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking (AISS).  Details of the study and measures taken can be found in the TFEQ_impulsivity_overview text file, the data are saved as a .csv file (tfeq_impulse_all.csv), and the analysis is detailed in tfeq18_analysis.html.  </p

Uncontrolled eating is associated with higher impulsiveness, risk taking and novelty-seeking

Previous studies suggest that trait disinhibition as measured by the Three Factor eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) is related to selected measures of impulsivity and risk taking. However, the factor validity of the original trait disinhibition measure has been questioned, and a revised scale of uncontrolled eating consequently developed. To date few studies have revisited the relationship between impulsivity and the uncontrolled and emotional eating scales of the revised TFEQ. In the present study, 283 participants (208 women) completed the revised TFEQ alongside a battery of measures of impulsivity and risk taking in an online study. The total and all subscale scores on the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale were significantly associated with scores on the uncontrolled, but not emotional or restrained, TFEQ scale. Likewise, risky behaviour indexed by the average number of pumps per trial on the Balloon Analogue Risk Task were also associated with uncontrolled, but not emotional or restrained, eating, and the same pattern of associations were also found for the novelty, but not intensity, subscales of the Arnetts Inventory of Sensation Seeking. Overall these data suggest that uncontrolled eating is related to wider personality traits of risky decision making, novelty seeking and wider cognitive impulsivity, which may in turn increase of future weight gain.</p

Data for research article: "Expectations about satiety and thirst are modified by acute motivational state."

Data for paper appearing in ‘Frontiers in Psychology’ December 2018These data are ratings of the characteristics of 4 test products, consisting of two drinks and two soups, with one example of a thinner and a thicker version of each product type. These ratings were made by people who had minimal breakfast (hungry condition), a filling ad libitum breakfast (sated condition) or a breakfast with minimal fluids (thirsty condition). The effects of these manipulations were assessed from ratings of how hungry and thirsty participants were at the start of testing. The evaluations made for each product fell into two groups: hedonic and sensory ratings (pleasant, sweet, salty, thick, creamy, familiar) and expectations about the effects of ingestion (expected satiation, expected satiety, expected thirst reduction and expected thirst suppression). In addition, participants gave an amount (in UK pence) for what they would be willing to pay for each product. All ratings data are based on 100pt visual analogue scales, ranging from lowest (0) to highest (100).Paper abstractPrior research has shown that consumers have clear and measurable expectations about the likely effects of food and drink items on their appetite and thirst, which are acquired with experience and influenced by a product’s taste and texture. What is unclear is whether expression of these expectations also varies with current appetitive state. It is possible that current appetite could increase or decrease the relevance of these expectations for future food choice and magnify a product’s expected impact on appetite. To test this, we contrasted expectations about satiety and thirst for four products consumed two hours after an appetite manipulation at breakfast, achieved through ad libitum access to low-energy drinks only (hunger condition), cereal only but no drinks (thirst condition) or both foods and drinks (sated condition). The test products were two soups and two drinks, with a thicker and thinner version of each product type to act as positive control to ensure sensitivity in detecting differences in expectations. For satiety, the predicted differences between products were seen: soups and thicker products were expected to be more filling and to suppress subsequent hunger more than drinks and thinner products, but these differences were more pronounced in the hunger than thirsty or sated conditions. Being thirsty also enhanced expectations of how much drinks would appease immediate thirst. Overall the data show that expectations were adjusted subtly by a person’s current appetitive state, suggesting that we have mechanisms that highlight the most important features of a product at the time when it may be most beneficial to the consumer. </div

Data for article "Hedonic contrast and the short-term stimulation of appetite."

Data for paper 'Hedonic contrast and the short-term stimulation of appetite' in Appetite (2020)This dataset is from a single experimental study examining the effects of hedonic contrast on food intake in a snack context. Participants (n=96) were assigned at random to one of three conditions where they could eat as much or little as they liked from a sequence of four bowls of snack foods:Palatable - served four bowls of salted crispsBland - served four bowls of unsalted crispsContrast - served salted, unsalted, salted, unsalted in that order.Data are intake (g), rated pleasantness and saltiness for each of the four servings, along with demographic data (age, height, weight and BMI), and individual difference measures (hunger at time of testing, and scores on the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire Restraint and Disinhibition scales, and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11: 3 sub-scales and total score).</div

Palatability: response to nutritional need or need-free stimulation of appetite?

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Comparing body composition between the sweet-liking phenotypes: experimental data, systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis

Legislation aimed at reducing sugar intake assumes that sweet-liking drives overconsumption. However, evidence that greater liking for sweet taste is associated with unhealthier body size is mixed and complicated by relatively small samples, an overreliance on body mass index (BMI) and lack of classification using sweet-liking phenotypes. We aimed to address these issues by examining body size data in two larger samples with sweet-liking phenotyping: extreme sweet-likers (ESL), moderate sweet-likers (MSL) and sweet-dislikers (SD). Adults (18-34yrs), attended a two-session lab-based experiment involving phenotyping for sweet-liking status and a bioelectrical impedance body composition measurement (Experiment One: N=200; Experiment Two: N=314). A significant effect of sweet-liking phenotype on fat-free mass (FFM) was found in both experiments, with ESL having significantly higher FFM than SD. In Experiment One, SD had a significantly higher body fat percentage (BF%) than ESL and MSL. However, as these data are from one research group in a young, predominantly westernised population, and the results did not perfectly replicate, we conducted an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis. Systematic searches across four databases identified 5736 potential articles. Of these, 53 papers met our search criteria: a taste assessment that measured liking using sucrose (>13.7% w/v), which allowed sweet-liking phenotyping and included either BMI, BF%, FFM or waist-circumference. A robust one-stage IPD meta-analysis of 15 studies controlling for sex revealed no significant differences in BF% (n = 1836) or waist-circumference (n = 706). For BMI (n = 2368), MSL had slightly lower BMI than ESL, who had the highest overall BMI. Most interestingly, for FFM (n = 768), MSL and SD showed significantly lower FFM than ESL. This suggests that the higher BMI often seen in sweet-likers may be due to a larger FFM and questions the simple model where sweet liking alone is a risk factor for obesity.</p