Commercial fire-retarded PET formulations - relationship between thermal degradation behaviour and fire-retardant action

Many types of fire-retardants are used in poly(ethylene terephthalate), PET, formulations, and two commercial fire retardants, Ukanol(TM) and Phosgard(TM), have been shown to improve significantly PET flame-retardancy when used as comonomers. Phosgard incorporates a phosphorus atom within the main chain whereas Ukanol incorporates a phosphorus atom as a pendent substituent. Despite their acknowledged effectiveness, the mode of action of these fire retardants remains unclear, and in this paper we present a comparison of the overall thermal degradation behaviour of PET and Ukanol and Phosgard fire retarded formulations. DSC and particularly TGA data show that both Ukanol and Phosgard have some stabilising influence on PET degradation, especially under oxidative conditions. TGA and pyrolysis experiments both clearly indicate that neither additive acts as a char promoter. Only the Phosgard formulation shows any release of volatile phosphorus species which could act in the gas phase. On the other hand, the most striking feature of the pyrolysis experiments is the macroscopic structure of the chars produced by the fire-retarded formulations, which hints at their fire-retardancy action - an open-cell charred foam was obtained upon charring at 400°C or 600°C. This foaming layer between the degrading melt and the flame would lower the amount of fuel available for combustion, and would also limit the feedback of heat to the condensed phase

Evaluation of thermal properties and crystallinity in PHB-based systems - a DoE approach

Complex formulations based on poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) (PHBV) were studied to statistically assess the effect of formulation (i.e., hydroxyvalerate (HV) content, plasticiser chemistry and content, filler type and content) on their thermal properties and degree of crystallinity (Xc). In binary systems, thermal properties were mainly influenced by filler type rather than its content, while for plasticised systems the changes were dependent on both increasing plasticiser content and PHB-plasticiser compatibility. Variations in HV content affected the ability of the polymer chain to fold, leading to significant changes in both thermal properties and Xc. In ternary systems, presence of multiple additives and consequent changes in intermolecular interactions lead to multifaceted behaviours that were not easily predicted by results from binary systems alone. For example, melting temperature did not show dependence on filler presence in PHBV systems despite introducing variations in pure PHB systems. In general, thermal properties and Xc are affected by all parameters studied, with changes in system free volume (i.e. changes in HV content and plasticisation) playing the most significant role. These results expand the understanding of factors controlling crystallisation in complex polymer systems and can be used to control matrix properties in new generations of packaging materials

Thermal degradation of Cross-Linked Polyisoprene and Polychloroprene

Polyisoprene and polychloroprene have been cross-linked either in solution or in solid state using free radical initiators. In the comparable experimental conditions higher cross-linking density was observed in the solid state process. Independent of the cross-linking method, polychloroprene tended to give a higher gel content and cross-link density than does polyisoprene. Infrared characterization of the cross-linked materials showed cis-trans isomerization occurred in the polyisoprene initiated by benzoyl peroxide, whereas no isomerization was found in the samples initiated by dicumyl peroxide. Polyisoprene does not cross-link by heating in a thermal analyzer, whereas polychloroprene easily undergoes cross-linking in such conditions. Infrared spectroscopy showed that in the case of polyisoprene, rearrangements occur upon heating which lead to the formation of terminal double bonds, while polychloroprene loses hydrogen chlorine which leads to a conjugated structure. There is apparently some enhancement of the thermal and thermal oxidative stability of polyisoprene because of the cross-linking. Cross-linked polychloroprene is less thermally stable than the virgin polymer. Cross-linking promotes polymers charring in the main step of weight loss in air, which leads to enhanced transitory char

A Study of the Ceramicisation of Allylhydridopolycarbosilane by Thermal Volatilisation Analysis and Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

AHPCS is a pre-ceramic polymer utilised as a precursor to SiC. An initial polymerisation to a cross-linked network is followed by a complex sequence of processes ultimately leading to amorphous SiC. Using thermal volatilisation analysis (TVA) accompanied with solid-state NMR (SSNMR), FTIR, MS, DSC and TGA the complete thermal profile was identified. Between 160 – 300 °C, AHPCS cross-links through the allyl group and undergoes some carbon-silicon rearrangement, with a volatilisation of low mass oligomeric material and significant volumes of hydrogen released from dehydrocoupling of SiH moieties. By 300 °C the allyl group is completely cross-linked but the polymer starts to undergo pyrolytic degradation of the network, with the release of chain fragments and low molar mass species such as methane, ethane, methanol, propane, propene and silane species. Hydrogen once again becomes the major volatile product above 400 °C due to higher proportion of dehydrocoupling forming Si–C and Si–Si bonds. Small chain fragments are seen in the form of larger alkyl silanes. These fragments come from the chain scission of the polymer at weaker parts of the network. The process of side group scission leads to further radical recombination reactions of silicon and carbon atoms to build the SiC network. By 500 °C higher proportion of dehydrocoupling occurs with recombination of Si–Si and Si–C species. The Si–H bonds in -SiH3 groups have completely cleaved along with C-H bonds in the CH3 and CH2 groups leaving SiC, -SiH and HCSi3 present in the material. This bond cleavage leads the silicon and carbon radical species to undergo radical recombination in the network with the volatile release being dominated by H2. By 650 °C the cleavage and recombination of remaining -SiH2-, -SiH- and HCSi3 groups ultimately form amorphous SiC. The volatiles released are mostly hydrogen with very few condensable products seen. Finally, SiC is then crystallised at higher temperatures forming β-SiC at 1100 °C and then subsequently α-SiC above 1500 °C

The influence of diol chain extender on morphology and properties of thermally-triggered UV-stable self-healing polyurethane coatings

Two sets of waterborne polyurethane dispersions were synthesised from polycarbonate polyol with molecular mass of 500 Da and hexamethylene diisocyanate or isophorone diisocyanate. Formulations were prepared without a chain extender, with aliphatic diol with two to five carbon atoms or with diethylene glycol. Coatings were prepared on cellulose triacetate sheets, damaged by a steel-wool scratch instrument and left to heal at room temperature and at 60˚C. Self-healing efficiency was examined by comparison of haze before damage and at intervals after damage. Samples were analysed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy. The tests were repeated after 12 weeks to investigate ageing of the polymers. Samples were also tested for their stability to weathering. Optimally designed coatings obtained up to 100% recovery within 10 minutes at 60˚C and partial recovery at room temperature. The self-healing properties of coatings were found to be linked to macro-organisation of polymer chains caused by interactions between hard segments and soft segments of the polyurethane moiety, leading to phase-mixing, promoted by bulky, non-symmetrical isophorone diisocyanate, or phase-separation, promoted by linear, symmetrical hexamethylene diisocyanate. The length of chain extender was found to have large influence on formulations prepared with hexamethylene diisocyanate, increasing phase-separation and haze with the increase of chain length. Diethylene glycol was found to improve phase-mixing and self-healing properties of hexamethylene diisocyanate based materials. The influence of chain extenders was found to be minimal for isophorone diisocyanate based materials

Filler and additive effects on partial discharge degradation of PET films used in PV devices

A series of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) films with different additives were subjected to identical electrical stresses to investigate their partial discharge (PD) degradation behaviour. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to study the surface chemistry changes of the degraded samples. The filled samples showed markedly better PD resistance and lifetime compared to the unfilled PET. A filler 'pile-up' effect has been directly observed for the filled samples and is proposed as the mechanism underlying the enhanced stability. PD-induced breakdown results also revealed that TiO2 filled PET has a superior PD lifetime to BaSO4 filled PET, which could be attributed to both the higher permittivity of the TiO2 fillers and the voids that are created around the BaSO4 particles during the film orientation process. Further improvements to PD resistance and PD lifetime, through the reduction of surface oxidation, are observed for a BaSO4-filled sample additionally containing the UV stabilizer Tinuvin 1577

Partial discharge behaviour of biaxially orientated PET films : the effect of crystalline morphology

The relationship between partial discharge (PD) induced breakdown behaviour and the crystallinemorphology of PET films used in photovoltaic devices has been explored and discussed in this work for the first time. Biaxially orientated PET films with and without BaSO4 filler were isothermally annealed at various temperatures before PD breakdown tests of the films to investigate the effect of crystalline morphology. Attenuated total reflectance - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to study the changes of crystallinity and lamellar thickness of the samples. It was found that both PD resistances and PD lifetimes could be significantly improved when the samples were annealed at temperatures above 210 °C. On the other hand, improvements were much less in the annealing temperature region between 180 and 210 °C. This, we propose, is because the thinner and less perfect lamellae formed by annealing at the lower temperatures are less effective at resisting ion bombardment and electrical tree propagation. On the other hand, the formation of thickened and perfected lamellae produced at higher annealing temperatures can effectively increase the tortuosity of electrical tree propagation paths, thereby increasing the PD lifetimes

Towards a consensus method for the isolation of mcroplastics from freshwater sediments

Environmental pollution caused by plastic waste is of global concern. There is growing interest in the study of microplastics in freshwater systems. However, the lack of harmonized analytical methodology makes it difficult to compare results obtained by different laboratories. This work compared methods for the recovery of microplastics from freshwater sediments based on density separation by flotation followed by digestion of organic matter. Simulated sediment was spiked with virgin polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamide (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) pellets, and post-consumer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) fragments. Density separation was carried out using distilled water and NaCl, CaCl2, ZnCl2, and NaI solutions, both for intact pellets/fragments and following grinding and sieving to three size fractions (2 mm). Digestions with HNO3, NaOH, and Fenton’s reagent were compared. Only NaI quantitatively recovered all types of polymers. However, CaCl2 and ZnCl2 recovered all but PVF and PTFE. Different flotation patterns were observed for different size fractions of the same polymer, highlighting the fact that density is not the only factor affecting recovery. Digestion efficiencies were 6–78% in HNO3, 4–45% in NaOH, and 49–80% in Fenton’s reagent. Overall, CaCl2 is recommended for density separation and Fenton’s reagent for organic matter removal

Investigation of the mechanical properties of carbon and glass fibres exposed to cryogenic temperatures and cryogenic cycling

The need for lightweight storage vessels has grown in recent years with the potential utilisation of liquid hydrogen as a fuel source in aircraft. Fibre-reinforced polymer vessels have been recognised as a potential solution due to their exceptional mechanical properties and lightweight nature. However, due to the cryogenic temperatures endured when storing liquid hydrogen, the composite material will be potentially exposed to temperatures considerably below the glass transition temperature. Thus, fundamental studies are required to understand the effects this will have on the mechanical properties of the fibre, matrix, and fibre-matrix interface in addition to the effects of natural convection, cryogenic shock, and cryogenic cycling between refuelling. This paper presents a methodology and findings from mechanical testing and surface analysis of individual fibres before and after cryogenic fatigue. Results for glass fibre reveal fluctuations in mean diameter and tensile strength but remain within error unless a film former is present. With a film former in the glass fibre size an increase in diameter and decrease in tensile strength is observed after one cryogenic cycle which stabilises with further cycling. It is concluded that cryogenic cycling does not significantly affect the fibre diameter and tensile strength of carbon fibre by the method used in this paper

Accessible heavier s-block dihydropyridines : structural elucidation and reactivity of isolable molecular hydride sources

The straightforward metathesis of 1-lithio-2-tbutyl-1,2-dihydropyridine using metal tert-butoxide (Na/K) has resulted in the first preparation and isolation of a series of heavier alkali metal dihydropyridines. By employing donors, TMEDA, PMDETA and THF, five new metallodihydropyridine compounds were isolated and fully characterised. Three distinct structural motifs have been observed; a dimer, a dimer of dimers and a novel polymeric dihydropyridylpotassium compound, and the influence of cation π-interactions therein has been discussed. Thermal volatility analysis has shown that these complexes have the potential to be used as simple isolable sodium or potassium hydride surrogates, which is confirmed in test reactions with benzophenone