Fiscal constraints, collection costs, and trade policies

That free trade allows economies in an ideal world to achieve the greatest possible welfare is one of the few undisputed propositions in economics. In reality, however, free trade is rare. The author argues that many developing countries intervene in trade at least partly to raise revenues, and that episodes of trade liberalization are often linked to tax reform. The author proposes a formal model to explain why developing countries rely disproportionately on tariffs for government revenues, when tax reforms are expected, and under what conditions trade liberalization will take place. The model uses the simple concept of the fixed costs involved in tax collection. When fiscal needs are limited, and the infrastructure to monitor, administer, and collect taxes is not well-developed, it is optimal for governments to rely on a handful of easy-to-collect taxes, which generally includes trade taxes. When fiscal needs expand, theexcess burden on the tax base grows rapidly, and tax reform becomes necessary. Tax reforms reduce reliance on the existing tax base, often allowing the statutory tax rate to be lowered. This is a form of trade liberalization when it involves the trade sector. The author defines trade liberalization in a somewhat unconventional way: only reductions in the rates at which the trade sector is taxed, are considered trade liberalization. Tariffication of quotas, normally considered a form of trade liberalization, is treated as tax reform (expanding the tax base). The author tests this hypothesis empirically, first through three historic case studies (Bolivia, Jamaica, and Morocco) and then through systematic econometric analysis. She constructs a set of panel data for 38 developing countries for 1980-92, using the statutory tariff rates published by UNCTAD. She uses empirical tests to isolate the cause of trade liberalization. The results support her hypothesis: tariff rates are positively related to fiscal shocks, and negatively associated with episodes of tax reform.Banks&Banking Reform,Environmental Economics&Policies,Public Sector Economics&Finance,Economic Theory&Research,Municipal Financial Management,Environmental Economics&Policies,Public Sector Economics&Finance,Economic Theory&Research,TF054105-DONOR FUNDED OPERATION ADMINISTRATION FEE INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT,National Governance

Trade negotiations in the presence of network externalities

Network externalities exist when the benefit a consumer derives from a good or service depends on the number of other consumers using the same good, or service (as happens, for example, with telecommunications, television broadcasting standards, and many other technology-related goods and services). National monopolies, regulated and endorsed by sovereign governments, tended to produce network externalities in the past: most countries had telephone monopolies, often state-owned, before deregulation. Whether to allow foreign competition in such industries becomes a pressing issue when national boundaries begin to blur as technology advances, and as previously untraded goods and services become tradable. Despite obvious gains from trade in such newly tradable sectors, governments often keep trade-prohibiting measures. With analog high definition television (HDTV) transmission standards, for example, regulations and politics kept Europe, and Japan from cooperating, so each invested heavily to develop its system in an attempt to have its own standard adopted by the rest of the world. The author analyzes how the presence of network externalities affects a country's willingness to trade. In her model, governments decide whether or not to allow international trade. When trading is permitted, the superior standard drives out all other in the trading area. She shows that even when there are efficiency gains from worldwide standardization, global free trade may not prevail. The technology leader is generally eager to trade, but countries with less advanced technology often choose to form inefficient regional blocks, or not to trade at all. Once such regional networks are established, global efficiency-enhancing free trade becomes even harder to achieve than it would have been in their absence. Transfer payments between countries reduce or eliminate such inefficiency, and facilitate the achievement of efficient trade in products. To achieve mutually beneficial arrangements, it is important to arrive at multilateral agreements before regional blocks form.Economic Theory&Research,Environmental Economics&Policies,Trade Policy,Payment Systems&Infrastructure,Labor Policies,Economic Theory&Research,Environmental Economics&Policies,TF054105-DONOR FUNDED OPERATION ADMINISTRATION FEE INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT,Trade Policy,Trade and Regional Integration

Organic agriculture and teikei in Japan after nuclear plant explosion in March, 2011

The contamination of radioactive matters to the fields by nuclear accident gave severe damage to organic farming because it put importance on the safety and environment. Besides the loss of income, there were various uncountable damages that cannot be easily compensated. Under such severe situation, various supports among organic farmers and between consumers were tried

Dimethyl sulfoxide-respiring bacteria in Suribati Ike, a hypersaline lake, in Antarctica and the marine environment

Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) occurs worldwide, especially in marine environments as well as in lakes and rainwater. DMSO respiration by bacteria is assumed to play an important role in the sulfur cycle in Antarctica and on earth. We first studied whether DMSO-respiring bacteria existed in Antarctica. Eight strains were isolated that grew by DMSO respiration under anaerobic conditions from water of the halocline in a meromictic lake, Suribati Ike, near Syowa Station in Antarctica. All of them were related to known species belonging to the genus Marinobacter based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. Using a clone library analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences, 38 of total 48 clones from water of the halocline were identified as Marinobacter. Studies on the various anaerobic respiration capabilities by bacteria in the halocline water found only DMSO respiration. Studies on bacteria with anaerobic respiration abilities in seawater from the Pacific Ocean and Seto Inland Sea, showed that either DMSO-respiring or nitrate-respiring bacteria were present and that all of isolates capable of DMSO respiration were closely related to Vibrio species

Enhanced interleukin-10 signaling with 14-member macrolides in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages

Immunomodulatory effects of 14-member macrolides, namely erythromycin (EM) and clarithromycin (CAM), have been reported in chronic respiratory infectious diseases. It has been suggested that 14-member macrolides have immunomodulatory effects on various lung cells such as alveolar macrophages. Interleukin (IL)-10 is an immunomodulatory cytokine that performs an irreplaceable role in negatively regulating inflammation, primarily via a mechanism that selectively blocks the expression of pro-inflammatory genes. It activates sig-nal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3, and subsequently induces the suppres-sor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS-3), resulting in the resolution of inflammatory response in macrophages. However, it has been still unclear whether 14-member macrolides exert immu-nomodulatory effects via IL-10 signaling pathway. We aimed to evaluate whether 14-member macrolides affect the IL-10 signaling pathway. The RAW264.7 macrophage cell line was pre-treated with EM or CAM, and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The levels of IL-10, IL-10 receptor, phosphorylated (p) STAT-3, and SOCS-3 were determined by RT-PCR, ELISA and immunoblotting. We observed increased levels of IL-10, p-STAT-3 and SOCS-3 in the treated cells. In addition, while the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α 6 h after LPS stimulation was equal between vehicle-treated and CAM-treated macrophage cells, those of CAM-treated cells were repressed 36 h following LPS stimulation, compared with those of the control cells. Therefore, the 14-member macrolides may initiate an early resolution of inflammation, in part, via the enhancement of the IL-10/STAT-3/SOCS-3 pathway

Primary Follicular Lymphoma of the Duodenum with Erosions as Atypical Macroscopic Features

A 52-year-old Japanese woman who was eventually diagnosed with primary follicular lymphoma of the duodenum showed atypical endoscopic features, namely, erosions with peripheral whitish edematous mucosa. Initial biopsy specimens taken from the erosions revealed insufficient numbers of lymphoma cells for histological diagnosis. Subsequent biopsy specimens from the peripheral mucosa containing the whitish enlarged villi showed infiltration of the lymphoma cells forming lymphoid follicles, which led us to the appropriate diagnosis. This case indicates that endoscopists should take biopsy samples from the peripheral mucosa with whitish enlarged villi rather than erosions in the rare instances that erosions appear as the main macroscopic feature of intestinal follicular lymphoma

ジャガイモおよびサツマイモ薄片の蒸煮速度式に関する研究

各種食品の蒸煮装置を設計し,制御化などを行なっていくためには,蒸煮速度を測定し,簡単な速度式を設定していくことが必要である。既報1)において,低含水率の食品である米,うどんおよびきしめんの蒸煮速度を重量法により求め,蒸煮速度式の設定に関する研究を行なってきた。 本研究は,ジャガイモおよびサツマイモを例として,高含水率の食品の場合の蒸煮速度の測定法ならびに速度式の設定に関する研究を行なったものである。 (1) 高含水率の食品の蒸煮速度の測定に有用な衝撃貫通試験法を提案した。 (2) S型形状係数を含む簡単な速度式として提出した次に示す蒸煮速度式が,ジャガイモおよびサツマイモ簿片の蒸煮に対して利用できた。dx/dθ=kn, α(1－x)n(x+α)ここで,x(－)は蒸煮率,θ(min)は蒸煮時間であり,n(－), α(－)およびkn,α(min－1)は定数である。上式においてn=1.0とした場合のαの値は,本実験試料に対してほぼ0.1となった。In order to design and to control various cooking apparatuses, it is necessary to measure the cooking rate and to determine the cooking-rate equations. In a previous paper 1), we studied the cooking-rate equations of rice, udon and kishimen which are low water content foods using the weighing method for measuring the cooking rates. In the present paper, we studied the measuring methods of the cooking rate and the cooking-rate equations of potato and sweet potato slices which are high water content foods. The results of this investigations are as follows. (1) The impact-penetration method which is simple and useful for measurement the cooking-rate equations of high water content foods was used. (2) The following cooking-rate equation postulated as simple rate equation with a S-shape constant α(－) was adopted with satisfaction for the cooking of potato and sweet potato slices: dx/dθ= kn, α( 1－x)n(x+α) where, x(－) is the cooking-ratio, θ(min) is the cooking time, and n(－), α(－) and kn, α(min) are the constants. The values ofαin the equation fixed n=1.0 showed about 0.1 for the used samples

うどん,そーめん,そばおよび中華そばのクッキング速度式に関する研究

各種のクッキング装置を,設計,制御化をしていくためにクッキング速度式の設定が必要である。前報において,米1～5),その他6～10)に対し,クッキング速度式に関する研究を行なってきた。 本報では,前報のスパゲティとひやむぎ10)に引続き,うどん,そーめん,そばおよび中華そばのクッキング速度式に関する研究を行なった。これらのめん類のクッキング速度を,クッキング温度70～99.5℃において,重量測定法により求めることができた。クッキング速度式は,2種の形で表わされた。一つの形は,n次の経験的速度式,もう一つの形は,殻状吸水モデルに基づいた半理論的速度式である。前者の速度式に対する活性化エネルギーの値は,うどん,そーめん,そばおよび中華そばに対し,それぞれ約13,8,11および10kcal/g-molとなった。これらの値は,前報において,スパゲティとひやむぎに対し得られた値9と11kcal/g-molによく似た値である。以上の結果より,めん類のクッキング速度は,おそらく水の拡散速度に律速され,デンプン成分と水の化学的反応速度が無視できるのではないかと推察される。In order to design and to control automatically various cooking apparatuses, it is necessary to determine the cooking-rate equations. In previous papers, we have studied the cooking rate equations of rice1-5) and so on6-10). In the present paper, we took up the cooking-rate equations of udon, somen, soba and Chuka soba following the one of spagetti and hiyamugi10). The cooking rates of noodles were obtained by the weighing method at the cooking temperature of 70~99.5°C. The cooking-rate equations were postulated in two types; one type is a n-th order empirical rate equation and the other is a semi-theoritical rate equation based on the water-soaking-shell model. The activation energy for the former rate equation was about 13, 8, 11 and 10 kcal/g-mol on the cooking of udon, somen, soba and Chuka soba, respectively. These values are very similar to the values of 9 and 11 kcal/g-mol obtained for spagetti and hiyamugi in the previous paper10). From the results, we may deduce that the cooking rate of noodles is perhaps limited by the diffusion rate of water, and the chemical reaction rate of starch components with water is perhaps negligible