Effects and Mechanism of Metal Chloride Salts on Pretreatment and Enzymatic Digestibility of Corn Stover

The effects of three metal chlorides including FeCl₃, CuCl₂, and AlCl₃ on corn stover biomass pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis were studied under lower severity conditions (reaction temperature of 150–160 °C, salt concentration of 0.075–0.125M, and reaction time of 10 min). The results were compared with dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment at the same conditions. The maximum monomeric xylose yields were observed to be 93 and 94 wt % when CuCl₂ and FeCl₃ were used in the pretreatment at 160 °C for 10 min at 0.125 M concentrations, which were higher than the sulfuric acid pretreatment yields at the same reaction conditions. However, monomeric xylose yield for corn stover pretreated with AlCl₃ was observed to be 8 wt % at the same condition. This could be explained by isomerization of xylose to xylulose and subsequent dehydration into furfural. However, enzymatic digestibility yields for the three metal chloride pretreated samples at 160 °C were greater than 92 wt % . These yields were higher than sulfuric acid pretreated samples at the same reaction conditions. The overall formation of fermentation inhibitor products for samples pretreated with CuCl₂ and FeCl₃ was observed to be similar to the control samples (pretreated with sulfuric acid at the same conditions)

IL-17A concentration in blood and peritoneal lavage fluid after severe CLP.

<p>(A) IL-17A concentration in blood 3, 6, 12, and 24 h after the sham operation and CLP, which peaked at 12 h. (B) IL-17A concentration in peritoneal lavage fluid 3, 6, 12, and 24 h after the sham operation and CLP, which peaked at 6 h. **P<0.01: Compared with CLP 3 h group, IL-17A concentration elevated significantly. ##P<0.01 and #P<0.05: IL-17A concentration elevated significantly in CLP mice than sham group mice on the same time point.</p

Superior effect of intraperitoneal vs intravenous IL-17A antibody administration.

<p>Intraperitoneal (A) or intravenous (B) anti-IL-17A antibody administration protected the mice from severe CLP. The CLP mice were intraperitoneally or intravenously given 50 µg of anti-IL-17A antibodies (<i>n</i> = 15), 50 µg of isotype control antibodies (<i>n</i> = 12), or 0.2 mL of PBS 3 h after severe CLP surgery. **<i>P</i><0.01: i.p. anti-IL-17A compared with the CLP group; ^##<i>P</i><0.01: i.p. anti-IL-17A compared with the i.p. isotype group; <i>P</i><0.05: i.v. anti-IL-17A compared with the CLP group.</p

The multi-taper method (MTM) spectra of the drought area index (DAI) of the (a) central Asia and the (b) monsoonal Asia, as well as the wavelet spectra of the DAI of the (c) central Asia and the (d) monsoonal Asia.

<p>The multi-taper method (MTM) spectra of the drought area index (DAI) of the (a) central Asia and the (b) monsoonal Asia, as well as the wavelet spectra of the DAI of the (c) central Asia and the (d) monsoonal Asia.</p

Cytokine levels in plasma and peritoneal lavage fluid after intraperitoneal or intravenous anti-IL-17A antibody blockade.

<p>The mice underwent a sham procedure, CLP, or CLP with intraperitoneal or intravenous anti-IL-17A administration (<i>n</i> = 5 for each group). The levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in the blood (A, B) and peritoneal lavage fluid (C, D) were measured 12 h after surgery. **<i>P</i><0.01, *<i>P</i><0.05.</p

Bacterial clearance after intraperitoneal anti-IL-17A antibody administration.

<p>The mice underwent a sham procedure, CLP, CLP with intraperitoneal anti-IL-17A, or isotype administration (n = 10 for each group). Blood and peritoneal lavage fluid were harvested 24 h after surgery. Mice that received intraperitoneal anti-IL-17A antibodies exhibited a deceased bacterial burden in the blood (A) and peritoneal cavity (B) compared with mice that received isotype antibodies or PBS. **P<0.01.</p

Correlations between the reconstructed PDO series and the reconstructed PDSI for the periods (a) 1300–1450s, (b) 1460s–1550s, (c) 1560s–1640s, (d) 1650s–1710s, (e) 1720s–1850s and (f) 1860s–1996.

<p>Correlations between the reconstructed PDO series and the reconstructed PDSI for the periods (a) 1300–1450s, (b) 1460s–1550s, (c) 1560s–1640s, (d) 1650s–1710s, (e) 1720s–1850s and (f) 1860s–1996.</p

Flow cytometric analysis of IL-17A–producing cells in peritoneal fluid after CLP and the percentage of neutrophil granulocytes in peritoneal fluid after intraperitoneal blockade with anti-IL-17A antibodies.

<p>(A) Representative flow cytometric dot plots. (B) Percentage of IL-17A+ -T cells in peritoneal lavage fluid after CLP or sham operation. (C) Percentage of neutrophil granulocytes in peritoneal fluid after blockade of anti-IL-17A in the four groups. The mice underwent a sham procedure, CLP, CLP with intraperitoneal anti-IL-17A or isotype administration (<i>n</i> = 6 for each group). Peritoneal lavage fluid was harvested 24 h after surgery. *<i>P</i><0.05.</p

The cross wavelet transform (XWT) between PDO and DAI of (a) central and (b) monsoonal Asia, and the squared wavelet coherence (WTC) between PDO and DAI of (c) central and (d) monsoonal Asia.

<p>The significance level (<i>p</i><0.05) is indicated by thick contours. The left arrows indicate anti-phase relationship, and right arrows indicate in-phase relationship between PDO and DAI.</p

The drought area index (DAI) and the (red bold line) low-passed (lower than the cutoff frequency of 0.02) DAI for (a) central and (b) monsoonal Asia.

<p>The yellow shaded area indicates the in-phase decadal variations and the green shaded area indicates the anti-phase decadal variations between them.</p