Benefit Cost Analysis Applied to Behavioral and Engineering Safety Countermeasures in San Francisco

The state of the practice in safety has advanced rapidly in recent years with the emergence of new tools and processes for improving selection of the most cost-effective safety countermeasures. However, many challenges prevent fair and objective comparisons of countermeasures applied across safety disciplines (e.g. engineering, emergency services, and behavioral measures). These countermeasures operate at different spatial scales, are funded often by different financial sources and agencies, and have associated costs and benefits that are difficult to estimate.This research proposes a methodology by which both behavioral and engineering safety investments are considered and compared in a specific local context. The methodology involves a multi-stage process that enables the analyst to select countermeasures that yield high benefits to costs, are targeted for a particular project, and that may involve costs and benefits that accrue over varying spatial and temporal scales.The methodology is illustrated using a case study from the Geary Boulevard Corridor in San Francisco, California. The case study illustrates that: 1) The methodology enables the identification and assessment of a wide range of safety investment types at the project level; 2) The nature of crash histories lend themselves to the selection of both behavioral and engineering investments, requiring cooperation across agencies; and 3) The results of the cost-benefit analysis are highly sensitive to cost and benefit assumptions, and thus listing and justification of all assumptions is required. It is recommended that a sensitivity analyses be conducted when there is large uncertainty surrounding cost and benefit assumptions

Benefit Cost Analysis Applied to Behavioral and Engineering Safety Countermeasures in San Francisco

The state of the practice in safety has advanced rapidly in recent years with the emergence of new tools and processes for improving selection of the most cost-effective safety countermeasures. However, many challenges prevent fair and objective comparisons of countermeasures applied across safety disciplines (e.g. engineering, emergency services, and behavioral measures). These countermeasures operate at different spatial scales, are funded often by different financial sources and agencies, and have associated costs and benefits that are difficult to estimate.This research proposes a methodology by which both behavioral and engineering safety investments are considered and compared in a specific local context. The methodology involves a multi-stage process that enables the analyst to select countermeasures that yield high benefits to costs, are targeted for a particular project, and that may involve costs and benefits that accrue over varying spatial and temporal scales.The methodology is illustrated using a case study from the Geary Boulevard Corridor in San Francisco, California. The case study illustrates that: 1) The methodology enables the identification and assessment of a wide range of safety investment types at the project level; 2) The nature of crash histories lend themselves to the selection of both behavioral and engineering investments, requiring cooperation across agencies; and 3) The results of the cost-benefit analysis are highly sensitive to cost and benefit assumptions, and thus listing and justification of all assumptions is required. It is recommended that a sensitivity analyses be conducted when there is large uncertainty surrounding cost and benefit assumptions

BART Perks: Using Incentives to Manage Transit Demand

BART Perks, offered by Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) and the San Francisco County Transportation Authority (SFCTA), was a six-month test program that provided incentives to riders for traveling during the shoulder hours of the morning peak period. The main goals of the Perks program were to: (1) reduce peak period and peak direction crowding, and improve person throughput; (2) improve BART customer satisfaction; (3) increase employer support for flexible work schedules; and (4) identify implementation challenges and solutions to provide lessons learned. About 17,800 participants enrolled, and about 2,600 of them were frequent weekday peak hour travelers. During the trial, an average of 250 participants, or about 10% of those who previously traveled during the peak hour, shifted their ride to one of the shoulder hours. Recommendations for future programs include recruiting a larger number of riders in the targeted travel market, structuring it to better reward behavior change rather than preexisting behavior, and considering more efficient methods of participant recruitment and retention

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Approaches to a Statewide Pedestrian Exposure Database

This report discusses approaches to addressing the need for better and more widely available pedestrian volume data in the state of California. While a variety of approaches could be used, this report focuses on the strategy of a statewide pedestrian volume database.This database would meet a variety of data needs for different stakeholder groups. One of its principal purposes would be to allow safety professionals at the state and local levels to estimate pedestrian exposure to risk at specific sites.Since exposure data is essentially equivalent to facility usage data, a pedestrian exposure data would be used for many purposes beyond risk analysis. Facility usage data might be used by municipalities to pinpoint new infrastructure needs, or to determine whether new infrastructure encourages more pedestrian activity. Facility usage data might also be used by advocacy groups as a means to promote new facility investments.If the database includes information beyond pedestrian volumes, such as facility characteristics (e.g. the availability of sidewalks and intersection crossings) or planning variables (e.g. land uses and population densities), it may be used as a means to improve pedestrian demand modeling techniques or to investigate the relationship between pedestrian environmental quality and pedestrian demand. Furthermore, if facility funding data are included, the database may also be used as a means to track spending on pedestrian projects.In short, there is a wide range of usage for a pedestrian volume database. In designing the database, it is important to maximize its utility to pedestrian stakeholder groups while recognizing the costs associated with increased complexity.Creation of a pedestrian volume database for the state of California involves several major decision points. This report examines these decision points and provides a range of database approaches given different funding and institutional constraints, and describes the challenges that will need to be addressed in the database development process.Chapter 2 discusses the technical and institutional challenges inherent in creation of a pedestrian exposure database. Chapter 3 discusses the need for an inventory of the pedestrian network as a starting point for the database, and present two existing sources for the network. Chapter 4 presents a range of approaches to data collection process, and suggests data points that might be appropriate for inclusion in the data collection process. Chapter 5 discusses how pedestrian demand modeling might be used to estimate pedestrian volumes with limited data inputs. Chapter 6 summarizes the report and provides recommendations for future development of the database

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Protocol Report

Walking is a healthful, environmentally benign form of travel, and is the most basicform of human mobility. Walking trips account for more than 8 percent of all tripstaken in California, making walking the second most commonly used mode of travelafter the personal automobile (Caltrans, 2002). In addition, many trips made byvehicle or public transit begin and end with walking.In spite of the importance and benefits of walking, pedestrians suffer adisproportionate share of the harm of traffic incidents in California. As noted above,walking trips make up just 8 percent of all trips in the state, but 17 percent of alltraffic fatalities are suffered by pedestrians. In 2004, 694 pedestrians were killed inthe state of California and 13,892 were injured (California Highway Patrol, 2004).To address this problem, significant resources are focused on countermeasures thataim to reduce the risk of pedestrian injury. Because resources are limited, riskanalysis is necessary to develop cost-effective countermeasures (Hoj and Kroger,2002).In the field of pedestrian safety, risk analysis involves assessing factors thatcontribute to the danger that a pedestrian is struck by a vehicle. These factors mayinclude physical characteristics of the street, such as lack of sidewalks; behavioralissues, such as pedestrian or driver alcohol use; as well as other environmentalvariables. In order to fully understand how these factors contribute to risk, it isnecessary to collect information on pedestrian exposure. Collection of pedestrianexposure information is an essential component of risk analysis.Pedestrian exposure is a concept that refers to the amount that people are exposedto the risk of being involved in a traffic collision. In principle, pedestrians are exposedto this risk whenever they are walking in the vicinity of automobiles. There are manymetrics that can be used to measure pedestrian exposure, but pedestrian volumesare the most frequently used.Although many state, regional, and local agencies have developed methodologies tocollect pedestrian volume data, there is no consensus on which method is best(Schneider et al., 2005; Schweizer, 2005). This is because there is no “one size fitsall” method of counting pedestrians. Rather, the choice of strategy depends on acomplex range of factors, including the characteristics of the area being studied; theresources available for data collection; and the specific purpose of data collection.This protocol aims to improve pedestrian data collection in the state of California byproviding information and guidance for each decision point in the data collectionprocess. Each chapter represents one of these decision points, and each will guidethe user through important considerations relevant to the data collection stage. Inaddition, each chapter provides a combination of real-world and hypotheticalexample scenarios to illustrate the issues discussed in the text

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure

We are pleased to present the final report of Caltrans Task Orders 5211 and 6211, “Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure.” The project focused on defining pedestrian exposure and evaluating methods for measuring it within the State of California. The project was funded by the California Department of Transportation as part of the California Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH) Program of the University of California.Deliverables associated with the project include (I) a protocol report on assessing pedestrian exposure, which is accompanied by a training curriculum and an evaluation of manual pedestrian counting methods; (II) an evaluation and test of automated pedestrian counting methods; and (III) a report on strategies to create a statewide pedestrian exposure database and (IV) a protocol for Pedestrian Exposure Study in Alameda County. The deliverables are discussed in more detail below

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Approaches to a Statewide Pedestrian Exposure Database

This report discusses approaches to addressing the need for better and more widely available pedestrian volume data in the state of California. While a variety of approaches could be used, this report focuses on the strategy of a statewide pedestrian volume database.This database would meet a variety of data needs for different stakeholder groups. One of its principal purposes would be to allow safety professionals at the state and local levels to estimate pedestrian exposure to risk at specific sites.Since exposure data is essentially equivalent to facility usage data, a pedestrian exposure data would be used for many purposes beyond risk analysis. Facility usage data might be used by municipalities to pinpoint new infrastructure needs, or to determine whether new infrastructure encourages more pedestrian activity. Facility usage data might also be used by advocacy groups as a means to promote new facility investments.If the database includes information beyond pedestrian volumes, such as facility characteristics (e.g. the availability of sidewalks and intersection crossings) or planning variables (e.g. land uses and population densities), it may be used as a means to improve pedestrian demand modeling techniques or to investigate the relationship between pedestrian environmental quality and pedestrian demand. Furthermore, if facility funding data are included, the database may also be used as a means to track spending on pedestrian projects.In short, there is a wide range of usage for a pedestrian volume database. In designing the database, it is important to maximize its utility to pedestrian stakeholder groups while recognizing the costs associated with increased complexity.Creation of a pedestrian volume database for the state of California involves several major decision points. This report examines these decision points and provides a range of database approaches given different funding and institutional constraints, and describes the challenges that will need to be addressed in the database development process.Chapter 2 discusses the technical and institutional challenges inherent in creation of a pedestrian exposure database. Chapter 3 discusses the need for an inventory of the pedestrian network as a starting point for the database, and present two existing sources for the network. Chapter 4 presents a range of approaches to data collection process, and suggests data points that might be appropriate for inclusion in the data collection process. Chapter 5 discusses how pedestrian demand modeling might be used to estimate pedestrian volumes with limited data inputs. Chapter 6 summarizes the report and provides recommendations for future development of the database

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Approaches to a Statewide Pedestrian Exposure Database

This report discusses approaches to addressing the need for better and more widely available pedestrian volume data in the state of California. While a variety of approaches could be used, this report focuses on the strategy of a statewide pedestrian volume database. This database would meet a variety of data needs for different stakeholder groups. One of its principal purposes would be to allow safety professionals at the state and local levels to estimate pedestrian exposure to risk at specific sites. Since exposure data is essentially equivalent to facility usage data, a pedestrian exposure data would be used for many purposes beyond risk analysis. Facility usage data might be used by municipalities to pinpoint new infrastructure needs, or to determine whether new infrastructure encourages more pedestrian activity. Facility usage data might also be used by advocacy groups as a means to promote new facility investments. If the database includes information beyond pedestrian volumes, such as facility characteristics (e.g. the availability of sidewalks and intersection crossings) or planning variables (e.g. land uses and population densities), it may be used as a means to improve pedestrian demand modeling techniques or to investigate the relationship between pedestrian environmental quality and pedestrian demand. Furthermore, if facility funding data are included, the database may also be used as a means to track spending on pedestrian projects. In short, there is a wide range of usage for a pedestrian volume database. In designing the database, it is important to maximize its utility to pedestrian stakeholder groups while recognizing the costs associated with increased complexity. Creation of a pedestrian volume database for the state of California involves several major decision points. This report examines these decision points and provides a range of database approaches given different funding and institutional constraints, and describes the challenges that will need to be addressed in the database development process. Chapter 2 discusses the technical and institutional challenges inherent in creation of a pedestrian exposure database. Chapter 3 discusses the need for an inventory of the pedestrian network as a starting point for the database, and present two existing sources for the network. Chapter 4 presents a range of approaches to data collection process, and suggests data points that might be appropriate for inclusion in the data collection process. Chapter 5 discusses how pedestrian demand modeling might be used to estimate pedestrian volumes with limited data inputs. Chapter 6 summarizes the report and provides recommendations for future development of the database.

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Protocol Report

Walking is a healthful, environmentally benign form of travel, and is the most basic form of human mobility. Walking trips account for more than 8 percent of all trips taken in California, making walking the second most commonly used mode of travel after the personal automobile (Caltrans, 2002). In addition, many trips made by vehicle or public transit begin and end with walking. In spite of the importance and benefits of walking, pedestrians suffer a disproportionate share of the harm of traffic incidents in California. As noted above, walking trips make up just 8 percent of all trips in the state, but 17 percent of all traffic fatalities are suffered by pedestrians. In 2004, 694 pedestrians were killed in the state of California and 13,892 were injured (California Highway Patrol, 2004). To address this problem, significant resources are focused on countermeasures that aim to reduce the risk of pedestrian injury. Because resources are limited, risk analysis is necessary to develop cost-effective countermeasures (Hoj and Kroger, 2002). In the field of pedestrian safety, risk analysis involves assessing factors that contribute to the danger that a pedestrian is struck by a vehicle. These factors may include physical characteristics of the street, such as lack of sidewalks; behavioral issues, such as pedestrian or driver alcohol use; as well as other environmental variables. In order to fully understand how these factors contribute to risk, it is necessary to collect information on pedestrian exposure. Collection of pedestrian exposure information is an essential component of risk analysis. Pedestrian exposure is a concept that refers to the amount that people are exposed to the risk of being involved in a traffic collision. In principle, pedestrians are exposed to this risk whenever they are walking in the vicinity of automobiles. There are many metrics that can be used to measure pedestrian exposure, but pedestrian volumes are the most frequently used. Although many state, regional, and local agencies have developed methodologies to collect pedestrian volume data, there is no consensus on which method is best (Schneider et al., 2005; Schweizer, 2005). This is because there is no “one size fits all†method of counting pedestrians. Rather, the choice of strategy depends on a complex range of factors, including the characteristics of the area being studied; the resources available for data collection; and the specific purpose of data collection. This protocol aims to improve pedestrian data collection in the state of California by providing information and guidance for each decision point in the data collection process. Each chapter represents one of these decision points, and each will guide the user through important considerations relevant to the data collection stage. In addition, each chapter provides a combination of real-world and hypothetical example scenarios to illustrate the issues discussed in the text.

Estimating Pedestrian Accident Exposure: Automated Pedestrian Counting Devices Report

Automated methods are commonly used to count motorized vehicles, but are notfrequently used to count pedestrians. This is because the automated technologiesavailable to count pedestrians are not very developed, and their effectiveness hasnot been widely researched. Moreover, most automated methods are used primarilyfor the purpose of detecting, rather than counting, pedestrians (Dharmaraju et al.,2001; Noyce and Dharmaraju, 2002; Noyce et al., 2006).Automated pedestrian counting technologies are attractive because they have thepotential to reduce the labor costs associated with manual methods, and to recordpedestrian activity for long periods of time that are currently difficult to capturethrough traditional methods. Data input and storage may also be less timeconsuming than with manual methods.On the other hand, the capital costs of automated equipment may be high;specialized training may be required to operate it; and automated devices aregenerally not capable of collecting information on pedestrian characteristics andbehavior. For these reasons, automated devices are not appropriate for allpedestrian data collection efforts.The choice between which method is more appropriate to collect pedestrian datamust be based on the accuracy level desired, budget constraints, and data needsspecifications.Automated Counting TechnologiesMuch of the research on automated pedestrian tracking devices has focused onpedestrian detection, not pedestrian counting. Extensive reviews of pedestriandetection technologies were conducted by Noyce and Dharmaraju (2002) and byChan et al. (2006). Technologies include piezoelectric sensors, acoustic, active andpassive infrared, ultrasonic sensors, microwave radar, laser scanners, video imaging(computer vision).Of the technologies listed above, those most adaptable to the purpose of pedestriancounting are: infra-red beam counters; passive infrared counters; piezoelectric pads;laser scanners; and computer vision technology. None of these devices are widelyused for the purpose of counting pedestrians outdoors, but all have some potential tobe adapted for that purpose.This report describes each of these technologies in detail, and discusses some ofthe technical strengths and weaknesses of each method. It is important to be awarethat technical limitations are only one consideration among many when choosing anappropriate counting device. The device “packaging,” such as the method andlocation of installation may be equally important. For example, the location andaccessibility of the device may create liability issues or promote vandalism