Bovine parturition: welfare and production implications of assistance and ketoprofen analgesia

Parturition is a necessary event for productive dairy cows (and their calves) and assisted parturition is common. Although difficult parturition is believed by farmers and veterinary surgeons to be painful and stressful for cows and their calves, data to support this view are limited. Previous studies typically analysed the effects of assistance or analgesia as individual effects but inclusion of both in a factorial design is rare, so the association between pain and parturition assistance is not certain. Furthermore, there is a paucity of studies investigating calf birth-related experiences in general, and available work typically focuses on health and productivity rather than more sensitive measures of welfare (e.g. behaviour). Differences in study design further challenge the interpretation and practical application of available data; most studies refer to ‘dystocia’, but definitions of this term vary widely and important differences between veterinary and farmer provided assistance are not always acknowledged. Accordingly, it is currently difficult to develop evidence based recommendations for farmers and veterinary surgeons regarding the value of analgesic provision to cows and calves around parturition. Farmers are recommended to closely monitor cows that may need assisted parturition to enable intervention to be optimised; however, this can be difficult to achieve particularly if staff availability is limited, and it is currently not possible to accurately predict when cows will give birth, or whether they are likely to need assistance. As such, some cows that experience difficult parturition may not receive timely assistance and conversely, some cows may be assisted unnecessarily — both are situations that may challenge welfare. The studies presented in this thesis aimed to investigate the effects of farmer-assisted parturition and administration of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ketoprofen on the welfare, health, and productivity of commercially managed Holstein dairy cows and calves (Bos taurus) using a 2 x 2 factorial study design. Further work aimed to support the findings of initial studies using accelerometer generated data to analyse behavioural patterns of cows and calves for up to 48 h postpartum. A final aim was to assess the potential for data generated by animal-worn accelerometers to detect cows that are likely to need farmer-provided assistance at parturition. Cows and calves subject to farmer-assisted and unassisted parturition were randomly assigned to receive either ketoprofen or saline within 3 h of parturition. Behaviour in the first 48 h postpartum was analysed using focal instantaneous sampling (visual observations) to investigate welfare outcomes. Detailed behavioural analysis was complemented with analysis of biomarkers indicative of health and welfare status (cortisol, creatine kinase [cows and calves]; L-lactate, plasma total protein [calves only]) in the first 7 d postpartum. Regardless of ketoprofen treatment, cows and calves subject to assisted birth showed behavioural differences consistent with a reduced welfare state (increased lateral recumbency [both] and reduced play [calves only]), compared to unassisted animals. Additionally, the plasma cortisol concentration of assisted cows was higher than unassisted cows immediately after parturition, suggesting assisted parturition is associated with heightened maternal stress. Irrespective of assistance status, cows and calves treated with ketoprofen engaged in behaviours consistent with pain and reduced welfare less than saline treated animals. Additionally, ketoprofen treated cows engaged in lying postures suggestive of improved comfort, and ketoprofen treated calves engaged in play behaviour more than saline treated cows and calves respectively (regardless of assistance status) — suggesting that all cows and calves experience pain after parturition that can be improved by ketoprofen. Results of further work using accelerometers to continuously monitor behaviour for 48 h after parturition corroborated these findings — ketoprofen treated cows and calves were more active than saline treated animals and ketoprofen treated calves engaged in increased play behaviour. Health and productivity data for cows and calves recruited in initial work were obtained from farm records: cow data were collected until the end of the subsequent lactation (approximately one year), calf data were collected until the end of the first lactation (approximately three years). Regardless of treatment status, parturition assistance was associated with increased postpartum disease and reduced maternal reproductive performance in the subsequent lactation. Birth assistance was associated with poorer growth of calves before first parturition and reduced reproductive performance in the first lactation (irrespective of treatment status). Ketoprofen treated cows had a 305 d mature equivalent milk yield 664 kg higher than saline treated cows, irrespective of assistance status. Ketoprofen treatment did not affect measures of calf productivity overall but ketoprofen treated assisted calves had a growth rate to weaning 0.1 kg/d higher than calves in the other assistance x treatment status interaction groups. Accelerometer generated data (primarily step count) showed potential for detection of cows more likely to need assistance, although a threshold for detection could not be established with high accuracy. Additionally, the number of lying bouts exhibited by cows in the last 12 h of gestation showed promise for predicting the timing of parturition. These data suggest that leg-worn accelerometers may be a valuable tool to aid pre-partum management of dairy cows, and the results presented here offer a starting point for the development of pre-partum specific algorithms for use in future remote devices. Collectively, the results presented in these studies indicate that parturition assistance is negatively associated with welfare and future productivity of cows and calves, and that ketoprofen administration immediately after parturition has beneficial effects on these outcomes. However, observed interaction effects were few, suggesting that a) farmer-assisted cows and calves experience challenges to welfare that extend beyond pain (i.e. challenges that cannot be manipulated using analgesia), and b) pain is experienced by all cows and calves after parturition, not just those that are assisted. These findings suggest that assistance at parturition should be provided judiciously and not be a routine management intervention. Furthermore, these results provide a robust basis on which inclusion of ketoprofen administration in parturition and newborn calf management protocols can be recommended to dairy farmers and veterinary surgeons seeking to optimise the welfare and productivity of Holstein cows and calves managed in a housed dairy system

Postpartum ketoprofen treatment does not alter stress biomarkers in cows and calves experiencing assisted and unassisted parturition: a randomised controlled trial

Dystocia is considered painful and stressful for both the dam and the calf, although systematic evidence of this is limited. Few studies have investigated biochemical markers of stress and pain postpartum and whether any adverse effects are ameliorated by administration of analgesia. In this study, cow–calf pairs experiencing both mild to moderate farmer assistance and no assistance at parturition were randomly assigned to either treatment or placebo group in a two-by-two design (animals subject to veterinary intervention were excluded). The treatments were the NSAID ketoprofen or saline, administered within three hours of parturition. Blood samples taken in the immediate postpartum period, and at 24 hours, 48 hours and 7 days after parturition, were analysed for plasma concentrations of creatine kinase and cortisol (cows and calves) and plasma L-lactate and total protein concentration (calves). Stress biomarkers were highest in the immediate postpartum period and declined over time (P<0.05). Cow plasma cortisol was higher in animals experiencing assisted parturition in the immediate postpartum period (P=0.023); by 24 hours no difference was evident. Intervention with NSAID analgesia did not result in beneficial changes in stress biomarkers. Based on biomarkers alone, this suggests limited benefits of NSAID treatment in unassisted or mild to moderately assisted parturition

Multiple congenital ocular abnormalities including microphthalmia, microphakia and aphakia in a Simmental cross bull

A 20-month-old Simmental cross bull presented to the Scottish Centre for Production Animal Health and Food Safety, University of Glasgow School of Veterinary Medicine, in April 2015 with multiple congenital ocular abnormalities including bilateral microphthalmia. We present this case as an interesting presentation of idiopathic multiple congenital ocular abnormalities in the absence of congenital abnormalities affecting other body systems. This case highlights an unusual ocular presentation and illustrates the importance of a thorough clinical examination. The prognosis for cases of multiple congenital ocular abnormalities including microphthalmia is poor as no treatment is available and welfare is often compromised. It is therefore important that cases are accurately diagnosed so appropriate management decisions can be made regarding the individual and any herd investigations that are required can be instigated

Use of a tri-axial accelerometer can reliably detect play behaviour in newborn calves

Traditionally, the welfare assessment of farm animals has focused on health and production outcomes. Positive welfare is, however, not merely the absence of negative welfare and is an important part of a life worth living. Play behaviour is widely considered to be an indicator of positive emotions because it is a “luxury” behaviour. Direct visual observation is considered the most accurate method of behavioural analysis, but it is time consuming and laborious. There is increasing interest in the use of remote monitoring technology to quantify behaviour. We compared the data output (“motion index” (MI)) from a commercially available tri-axial accelerometer fitted to newborn dairy calves to video footage of the same calves, with a focus on play behaviour. The motion index values over 48 h were positively correlated with both the duration of play behaviour and the number of play bouts. The motion index threshold in each sample interval with the optimal sensitivity and specificity for the identification of play behaviour was MI ≥ 2.5 at a 1 min resolution (sensitivity (Se) = 98.0%; specificity (Sp) = 92.9%) and MI ≥ 24.5 at a 15 min resolution (Se = 98.0%; Sp = 89.9%), but these values consistently overestimated the overall proportion of sample intervals in which play was observed. The MI that best reflected the results obtained from visual one-zero sampling was MI ≥ 23 for 1 min intervals and MI ≥ 62 for 15 min intervals—this may therefore be the basis of a more conservative approach to the identification of play behaviour from accelerometer-generated data. Our results indicate that accelerometer-generated data can usefully indicate the amount of play behaviour shown by newborn calves for up to 48 h, providing an efficient method for identifying this important parameter in future work

Validating Accelerometer Technology to Detect Play Behaviour in Weaned Dairy Calves

Objectives: Animal welfare is an increasingly important subject that is gaining interest not only from veterinarians and scientists, but also from consumers. The public drive for higher welfare standards has increased the need for research to better understand the needs and nature of animals. Play behaviour is commonly observed in young animals and may be adversely affected by negative experiences. Thus, play can be regarded as an indication of a positive welfare state. Observational methods of recording animal behaviour can be labour intensive and impractical for studies of long duration. The increase in commercially available accelerometer technology has allowed for detailed analysis of animal behaviours in a more efficient manner than continuous visual observations. Accelerometers have been validated for detecting play behaviour in newborn (≤ 48 h old) dairy calves but not in any other age group of cattle. The objective of this study was to determine the ability of accelerometers to detect play behaviour in older calves (3 to 5 months old), with a particular focus on motion index (MI) – a proprietary measure of overall animal activity (IceTag, Peacock Technology, Scotland). Materials and methods: Eight weaned female Holstein-Friesian calves (age 118 ± 16 d) were recruited from a 50-cow dairy herd in central Scotland. Calves were housed in a straw-bedded group pen of up to ten calves and had ad libitum access to water, concentrate pellets and straw. Accelerometers (IceTag, Peacock Technology) were attached to one hindlimb of each calf for a 48-hour period. Sensor data were downloaded in 15-min intervals at the end of the recording period. These devices measure acceleration forces which occur during animal movements and output a variety of activity data including step count, lying times and a measure of overall activity termed “motion index (MI)”. Calf behaviour was filmed continuously over the same 48-hour period using two cameras providing an unobstructed view of the calf shed. Behavioural analysis was conducted using one-zero sampling to identify the presence (1) or absence (0) of play within each 15-min interval corresponding to the IceTag data output. Visual observations and MI data were compared and formatted in 2x2 contingency tables for the calculation of the sensitivity (Se), specificity (Sp) and balanced accuracy of different MI thresholds to detect the presence of play. Results: The number of 15-min intervals in which play events were recorded varied between calves and ranged from 9 to 39 (median 26) over the 48-hour recording period. The median MI was 6 (range 0 to 2343). The MI threshold which best correlated with visual identification of play behaviour was MI ≥69 (sensitivity = 94.42%; specificity = 93.60%; balanced accuracy = 94.01%). Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that IceTag generated MI data can be used as a more time efficient alternative to visual analysis to detect play behaviour in weaned dairy calves. This technology can be implemented as a research tool in comparing play, an indicator of positive welfare states, in weaned dairy calves across different management systems

Validating Accelerometer Technology to Detect Play Behaviour in Weaned Dairy Calves

Relevant sector: • Calf health • Welfare • Precision livestock technology. Objectives: Animal welfare is an increasingly important subject that is gaining interest not only from veterinarians and scientists, but also from consumers. The public drive for higher welfare standards has increased the need for research to better understand the needs and nature of animals. Play behaviour is commonly observed in young animals and may be adversely affected by negative experiences. Thus, play can be regarded as an indication of a positive welfare state. Observational methods of recording animal behaviour can be labour intensive and impractical for studies of long duration. The increase in commercially available accelerometer technology has allowed for detailed analysis of animal behaviours in a more efficient manner than continuous visual observations. Accelerometers have been validated for detecting play behaviour in newborn (≤ 48 h old) dairy calves but not in any other age group of cattle. The objective of this study was to determine the ability of accelerometers to detect play behaviour in older calves (3 to 5 months old), with a particular focus on motion index (MI) – a proprietary measure of overall animal activity (IceTag, Peacock Technology, Scotland). Materials and methods: Eight weaned female Holstein-Friesian calves (age 118 ± 16 d) were recruited from a 50-cow dairy herd in central Scotland. Calves were housed in a straw-bedded group pen of up to ten calves and had ad libitum access to water, concentrate pellets and straw. Accelerometers (IceTag, Peacock Technology) were attached to one hindlimb of each calf for a 48-hour period. Sensor data were downloaded in 15-min intervals at the end of the recording period. These devices measure acceleration forces which occur during animal movements and output a variety of activity data including step count, lying times and a measure of overall activity termed “motion index (MI)”. Calf behaviour was filmed continuously over the same 48-hour period using two cameras providing an unobstructed view of the calf shed. Behavioural analysis was conducted using one-zero sampling to identify the presence (1) or absence (0) of play within each 15-min interval corresponding to the IceTag data output. Visual observations and MI data were compared and formatted in 2x2 contingency tables for the calculation of the sensitivity (Se), specificity (Sp) and balanced accuracy of different MI thresholds to detect the presence of play. Results: The number of 15-min intervals in which play events were recorded varied between calves and ranged from 9 to 39 (median 26) over the 48-hour recording period. The median MI was 6 (range 0 to 2343). The MI threshold which best correlated with visual identification of play behaviour was MI ≥69 (sensitivity = 94.42%; specificity = 93.60%; balanced accuracy = 94.01%). Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that IceTag generated MI data can be used as a more time efficient alternative to visual analysis to detect play behaviour in weaned dairy calves. This technology can be implemented as a research tool in comparing play, an indicator of positive welfare states, in weaned dairy calves across different management systems

MCT1 genetic polymorphism influence in high intensity circuit training: A pilot study

Monocarboxylate Transporter 1 (MCT1) mediates the transport of the main fraction of lactate across the sarcolemma. A common polymorphic MCT1 variant has been identified, but its role in high intensity exercise performance has not been defined. We investigated the influence of MCT1 A1470T polymorphism (rs1049434) on lactate accumulation after high intensity circuit training. Ten men aged 20–26 performed three controlled circuit training (CWT) sessions at 60%, 70%, and 80% of the 15 repetition maximum (15 RM), in non-consecutive days. CWT included three sets of a circuit of eight exercises, obtaining lactate measurements immediately after each set had been completed. Two independent variables were analysed: MTC1 genotypes according to the presence or absence of the A1470T polymorphism, and the intensity of circuit training. Genotype distributions were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, being 30% wild-type, 50% heterozygotes, and 20% mutated homozygotes. Mean lactate concentration at 80% of 15 RM were significantly higher than the mean lactate values at the other intensities (p < 0.01). Significant differences between genetic groups were found in the lactate accumulation slope at 80% of 15 RM (p = 0.02) and in the maximal lactate concentration reached by all subjects in the study (Lmax) (p = 0.03). The carriers of the A1470T polymorphism in the MTC1 gene seem to exhibit a worse lactate transport capability into the less active muscle cells for oxidation

Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs at calving

In recent years farmers, veterinary surgeons, and consumers have all shown increasing awareness of pain in cattle (and its associated negative welfare impacts), and accordingly there is increased focus on the use of analgesia following painful procedures, such as disbudding and castration. Calving is a necessary event for cows and their calves, and is painful; however, pain-relief is not routinely provided, particularly to calves. This article reviews the literature on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug usage around calving to aid practitioners in making evidence-based decisions regarding management of calving-related pain in cows and calves

Do Newborn Calves Benefit from Administration of Analgesia in the Immediate Postpartum Period?

No abstract available