Les droits de l’enfant : genèse, institutionnalisation et diffusion (1924-1989)

La ratification par l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU de la Convention des Nations unies relative aux droits de l’enfant (CNUDE, 1989) est un repère historique pour qui s’intéresse à l’histoire de l’enfance. Ce texte juridiquement contraignant, qui consacre le statut de l’enfant en tant que sujet de droits, est ratifié par tous les États à l’exception notable des États-Unis. Mais Zoé Moody met en garde quant à la dimension révolutionnaire d’un événement qui, « aussi révélateur et fondamental soit..

« Une véritable frénésie de jouissance… »

Répondant à un double souci de sécurité et de prophylaxie vénérienne, les armées d’occupation ont, durant les deux conflits mondiaux, prêté une attention non négligeable au phénomène prostitutionnel. Contrôler la prostitution par le rétablissement, en territoires occupés, d’une réglementation stricte, c’était non seulement répondre à ce double péril générateur d’angoisse, mais également intervenir de manière étroite dans la vie sexuelle des soldats et leurs rapports avec la population (féminine) occupée.Durant la première puis la deuxième occupation du territoire belge, le contrôle de la prostitution, traditionnellement dévolu aux autorités locales, est devenu une matière incontournable dans les rapports entre autorités occupantes et occupées, les prostituées mineures d’âge constituant un enjeu à part. Depuis le vote, en 1912, de la loi belge sur la protection de l’enfance, la prostitution des mineures et plus largement leur sexualité ont intégré les rangs de tous ces comportements échappant au champ pénal traditionnel, vis-à-vis desquels les professionnels de la protection de l’enfance pouvaient désormais intervenir. À travers le cas précis du traitement judiciaire réservé aux jeunes belges qui se prostituent ou entretiennent des relations sexuelles avec des militaires allemands durant la deuxième guerre mondiale, cette contribution propose d’examiner les pratiques et les représentations qui émergent autour de ces jeunes filles, en ces périodes troublées où le modèle social et moral de protection de l’enfance se colore de patriotisme.“A Veritable Frenzy of Jouissance”: Juvenile Prostitution and the Occupying Forces in Belgium, 1940-1945 Occupying forces during the two world wars paid significant attention to the phenomenon of prostitution, responding to twin concerns about security and venereal prophylaxis. Controlling prostitution by strictly regulating it in occupied territory was not only a means of responding to a double danger that was the cause of much anxiety, but also of directly intervening in the sex lives of soldiers and in their relationship with (female) occupied populations. During both the first and second occupations of Belgium, the regulation of prostitution – which was traditionally the reserve of local authorities – was a key issue in the relationship between occupants and occupied, and underage prostitutes were a separate issue again. Belgian laws had been created to protect childhood in 1912, since which time the sexuality of minors in general, and underage prostitution in particular, had been integrated into a whole category of behaviours that escaped the traditional penal code and were now dealt with by child protection specialists. By studying the case of the legal treatment of young Belgians who prostituted themselves or had sexual relationship with German soldiers during WWII, this essay aims at examining the practices and representations that emerge in relation to young women in times of strife, when the social and moral model of child protection becomes tinged with patriotism

Marissal Claudine, Protéger le jeune enfant. Enjeux sociaux, politiques et sexués

Le xxe siècle correspond à une diminution soutenue de la mortalité infantile en Belgique, régulièrement imputée à la création, puis la multiplication sur le territoire belge, de consultations de nourrissons. Comme l’avait montré G. Masuy Stroobant, cette diminution de la mortalité infantile est plus tardive que celle de l’ensemble de la population belge, amorcée un demi-siècle plus tôt. Les nouveau-nés et les plus jeunes enfants demeurent d’ailleurs e..

Une guerre de chiffres

Aux xixe et xxe siècles, la régulation et le contrôle de la prostitution ont fait l’objet d’une série de débats entre partisans du modèle « réglementariste » et partisans de l’abolition des règlements, voire de la prostitution elle-même. En Belgique, ce débat, contemporain de l’engouement des scientifiques et du personnel politique pour les statistiques, a pris les apparences d’une « guerre de chiffres ». Cette étude analyse la construction et l’évolution de ces séries statistiques en fonction des préoccupations des classes dirigeantes successives, ainsi que les efforts des uns et des autres pour présenter ces données à leur avantage, allant du simple discours orienté à la manipulation pure et simple.During the 19th and 20th centuries, heated debates about prostitution control opposed the regulationists, who advocated for a police and medical control of prostitution, to the abolitionists, fighting for the disappearance of regulated prostitution. In Belgium, this controversy about prostitution occurred at a time when scientific and political circles were increasingly interested in statistics, leading to a war of figures. This paper deals with the construction and evolution of official prostitution statistics in relation with the preoccupations of the political elite, abolitionists and regulationists presenting these data to their advantage, going from ideological discourses to even political manipulations

Soil redistribution in rural catchment: how fifty years old soil survey can help model improvement

In a context of high urbanization’s pressure in rural zones, landscape modelling of erosion opens interesting perspectives in land use planning. In most cases, validation data are the weak point. In this study, we present how fifty years old soil observations can help progressing towards a more accurate validation of such modelling in rural areas. As of 1947, a comprehensive systematic survey of the Belgian soil cover was initiated. Field observations were done every 75 meters by soil auger to a standard depth of 125cm (if possible). Map units were delineated on cadastral field survey maps at scale 1:5,000, based on auger observations and landscape context, then generalised on the 1:10,000 topographic base map for a publication at 1:20,000 scale. The legend of the map includes more than 6,000 different soil types and variants. More recently, the Walloon part of this map was digitalised to produce the Digital Soil Map of Wallonia (DSMW). A 10m resolution DEM was build up in 2009. Its RMSE is 0.8m. Soil erodibility and runoff production maps were derived at the same resolution. A land use map exists at 1:10,000 scale since 2005 and is updated yearly. We applied the USPED model (Unit Stream Power - based Erosion Deposition) (Moore and Burch, 1986) in a small watershed where first soil observations took place in 1956. New soil observations were done in 2010. The watershed is completely included in a cultivated area. The model was applied considering a transport capacity limitation proposed by Mitasova and Mitas (1996). Furthermore, we slightly modified it, in order to take into account recent advances in RUSLE factors computations like LS computation proposed by Desmet and Govers (1996) and Nearing (1997). The spatial distribution of erosion and deposition area produced by the model on the basis of the current DEM is consistent with a comparison between old and recent pedological observations. Furthermore, a comparison between horizons’ thickness in 1956 and 2010 gives spatially distributed quantitative information on erosion and deposition. Nevertheless, some uncertainties remain since the pedological descriptions are based on thickness classes, due to the variability of soil cartographical units, and since the current DEM is itself affected by an uncertainty on the elevation value. Future research will then focus on more accurate elevation data as starting point and then it will become conceivable to model the evolution of watershed elevation including land use and other local anthropogenic structures like hedgerows, ditches or grass strips

African monsoon teleconnections with tropical SSTs: validation and evolution in a set of IPCC4 simulations

A set of 12 state-of-the-art coupled oceanatmosphere general circulation models (OAGCMs) is explored to assess their ability to simulate the main teleconnections between the West African monsoon (WAM) and the tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs) at the interannual to multi-decadal time scales. Such teleconnections are indeed responsible for the main modes of precipitation variability observed over West Africa and represent an interesting benchmark for the models that have contributed to the fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC4). The evaluation is based on a maximum covariance analysis (MCA) applied on tropical SSTs and WAM rainfall. To distinguish between interannual and multi-decadal variability, all datasets are partitioned into low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency (HF) components prior to analysis. First applied to HF observations, the MCA reveals two major teleconnections. The first mode highlights the strong influence of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The second mode reveals a relationship between the SST in the Gulf of Guinea and the northward migration of the monsoon rainbelt over the West African continent. When applied to HF outputs of the twentieth century IPCC4 simulations, the MCA provides heterogeneous results. Most simulations show a single dominant Pacific teleconnection, which is, however, of the wrong sign for half of the models. Only one model shows a significant second mode, emphasizing the OAGCMs’ difficulty in simulating the response of the African rainbelt to Atlantic SST anomalies that are not synchronous with Pacific anomalies. The LF modulation of these HF teleconnections is then explored through running correlations between expansion coefficients (ECs) for SSTs and precipitation. The observed time series indicate that both Pacific and Atlantic teleconnections get stronger during the twentieth century. The IPCC4 simulations of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries do not show any significant change in the pattern of the teleconnections, but the dominant ENSO teleconnection also exhibits a significant strengthening, thereby suggesting that the observed trend could be partly a response to the anthropogenic forcing. Finally, the MCA is also applied to the LF data. The first observed mode reveals a well-known inter-hemispheric SST pattern that is strongly related to the multi-decadal variability of the WAM rainfall dominated by the severe drying trend from the 1950s to the 1980s. Whereas recent studies suggest that this drying could be partly caused by anthropogenic forcings, only 5 among the 12 IPCC4 models capture some features of this LF coupled mode. This result suggests the need for a more detailed validation of the WAM variability, including a dynamical interpretation of the SST–rainfall relationships

Noise removal in MRS applications: field cases and filtering strategies

International audienceThe usefulness and reliability of magnetic resonance information to characterize water bearing geological structures has been widely demonstrated these last two decades all over the world and many future applications just begin. The main limitation of MRS applicability is its sensitivity to the electromagnetic noise which results in a long and site dependent measuring duration, and generally prove to be impossible in urban conditions. Many improvements have been performed all along the development of MRS technology. Nowadays, numerous mono and multi-channel processing schemes have been published, but efficiency remains site and time dependent. We have reviewed data from various contexts and compared the noise removal efficiency and impact of the filtering on synthetic signal added to real noise data. We also used methods derived from magneto-telluric to study the structure of the noise and present a continuous EM field monitoring during a storm event in mountain where we performed a MRS survey. We observed that the reconstruction of natural noise is a percentage of the ambient noise, the ratio is almost stable. Despite this observation of stable removal performance, it means that when the level of noise is multiplied by 10 to 100 and more… it is better to stop measuring MRS and wait for a quiet period of time

Morphological analysis of microcellular PP produced in a core-back injection process using chemical blowing agents and gas counter pressure

International audienceA complete experimental analysis of the microcellular injection process using Chemical Blowing Agents (CBA) with Gas Counter Pressure (GCP) and core-back expansion is presented. Three different types of polypropylene, neat and charged, were mixed with two different CBAs and injected into a plate mold with varying process parameters. First, an exhaustive cartographical mapping of the plate morphology is analyzed. In a second step, the relation between injection parameters and the resulting morphology is investigated. The results show that injection time affects the cellular structure. The formulation, especially the type of chemical foaming agent, controls the average bubble radius. Compared with classical injection process, the use of CBAs, combined to Gas Counter Pressure and core-back process, allows obtaining parts with good surface aspect, more homogeneous cellular structures and smaller bubble radiu