Evaluation of carbohydrate content of fruits cultivated in different regions of Brazil.

O Brasil possui uma grande diversidade de frutas, sendo este um fator importante para a alimentação da população em função destas serem fonte de carboidratos, fibra alimentar (FA) e micronutrientes. As frutas podem sofrer variações em sua composição química pela região de cultivo, em função das várias peculiaridades de clima e solo do país. Embora diversos métodos estejam disponíveis para a quantificação de FA, o método AOAC 2011.25 possibilita sua quantificação considerando a definição proposta pelo Codex Alimentarius. Os carboidratos são usualmente estimados por diferença, prática que deve ser substituída por sua análise química, proporcionando dados mais próximos aos reais e disponibilizando informações de compostos específicos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo comparar o conteúdo de FA de frutas pelos métodos AOAC 2011.25 e AOAC 991.43, e avaliar o perfil de carboidratos de quatro frutas cultivadas em diferentes regiões do território brasileiro. A aplicação do método AOAC 2011.25 envolveu uma etapa prévia de avaliação do método nas condições estabelecidas no laboratório. Seguindo critérios de seleção do plano de amostragem, amostras de ameixas (Prunus salicina Lindl.), atemoias (Annona x atemoya Mabb.), jacas (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) e cocos maduros (Cocos nucifera L.) foram adquiridas (3 lotes/amostra) na Companhia de Entrepostos e Armazéns Gerais de São Paulo (CEAGESP) e, após atingirem estádio de maturação ideal para consumo, foram analisadas quanto ao perfil de carboidratos. O conteúdo de FA foi analisado pelos métodos AOAC 2011.25 e AOAC 991.43. O método AOAC 2011.25 foi avaliado em relação a diferentes matrizes alimentares e padrões de carboidratos quanto a precisão, exatidão e linearidade, apresentando adequada performance no laboratório. O conteúdo de FA das ameixas, atemoias e jacas, obtido pelo método AOAC 2011.25 foi superior ao obtido pelo método AOAC 991.43, devido à presença de frutanos, enquanto que para cocos não houve diferença significativa. O perfil de carboidratos apresentou diferenças significativas que sinalizaram a influência da procedência da amostra na variabilidade dos resultados. A utilização do método AOAC 2011.25 proporcionou valores de FA maiores que os obtidos com metodologia tradicional, sendo recomendada para frutas com considerável conteúdo de frutanos em função da obtenção de valores mais próximos aos reais. A composição química das frutas avaliadas variou em função de sua região de cultivo, resultado que reforça a necessidade de se considerar a procedência da amostra na avaliação desse tipo de alimento.Brazil has a wide diversity of fruits, and this is an important factor in population feeding since it is a source of carbohydrates, dietary fiber (DF) and micronutrients. Fruits can undergo variations in its chemical composition by region of cultivation, due to several climate and soil peculiarities in the country. Although a number of methods are available for the quantification of DF, AOAC 2011.25 method allows its quantification considering the definition proposed by Codex Alimentarius. Usually, carbohydrates are estimated by difference, a practice that should be replaced by chemical analysis, which provide data closer to real, and making available information on specific compounds. This study aimed to compare the DF content of fruits by AOAC 2011.25 and 991.43 methods, and to evaluate the carbohydrate profile of four fruits cultivated in different regions in the Brazilian territory. The application of AOAC 2011.25 method involved a previous step of assessment of the method on the conditions established in the laboratory. Following the screening criteria on the sampling plan, samples of plums (Prunus salicina Lindl.), atemoyas (Annona x atemoya Mabb.), jackfruits (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) and mature coconuts (Cocos nucifera L.) were purchased (3 lots/sample) at Companhia de Entrepostos e Armazéns Gerais de São Paulo (CEAGESP), and after reaching the ideal maturity stage for consumption, they were analyzed for carbohydrate profile. The DF content was analyzed by AOAC 2011.25 and 991.43 methods. AOAC 2011.25 method was evaluated for different food matrices and carbohydrate standards for precision, accuracy and linearity, showing an appropriate performance in the laboratory. The DF content of the plums, atemoyas and jackfruits, obtained by AOAC 2011.25 method, was higher than the one obtained by AOAC 991.43 method due to the presence of fructans, while for coconuts there was no significant difference. The carbohydrate profile showed significant differences that indicated the influence of the sample source on the variability of the results. The use of AOAC 2011.25 method provided DF values higher than those obtained with the traditional methodology, and it is recommended for fruits with considerable fructan content since it achieves closer to real values. The chemical composition of the evaluated fruits ranged based on its cultivation region, result that reinforces the need to consider the origin of the sample in the evaluation of this kind of food

Evaluation of ethylene-auxin crosstalk and its influence on the volatile compound metabolism during tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit ripening by comparative metabolomic and proteomic analysis

Progressos consideráveis têm sido feitos no estudo do amadurecimento de frutos climatéricos. Entretanto, o conhecimento acerca dos fatores dependentes e independentes de etileno que regulam o amadurecimento de frutos climatéricos ainda é limitado e o papel da auxina e de outros hormônios relacionados à regulação do amadurecimento permanece por ser elucidado. Estudos têm avaliado o papel da auxina e da interação etileno-auxina no metabolismo secundário em frutos de tomate e destacado a necessidade de aprofundar o conhecimento já existente e melhorar a compreensão do papel de ambos os hormônios na formação do aroma de frutos climatéricos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a interação etileno-auxina e sua influência no metabolismo de compostos voláteis durante o amadurecimento de tomates (Solanum lycopersicum L.) através de análises metabolômicas e proteômicas comparativas. Para tal, frutos de tomateiro cv. Micro-Tom em estádio mature green foram separados em quatro grupos experimentais: CTRL (sem tratamento); ETHY (tratamento com etileno); IAA (tratamento com ácido indol-3-acético); ETHY+IAA (ambos os tratamentos hormonais). A mudança de cor e a emissão de etileno foram determinadas diariamente. Os perfis metabólicos polares e não polares foram determinados separadamente em frutos 0, 8 e 18 dias de amadurecimento por GC-MS enquanto as análises proteômicas foram realizadas em frutos com 0 e 8 dias de amadurecimento por LC-MS. Compostos voláteis foram analisados em dias específicos. Metabolitos primários e secundários tiveram seus níveis significativamente alterados pelos tratamentos hormonais, assim como as enzimas envolvidas em metabolismos relacionados. Análises de enriquecimento evidenciaram as vias metabólicas que foram significativamente influenciadas pelos tratamentos com etileno e auxina, incluindo em metabolismos secundários, como as vias de biossíntese de terpenoides, carotenoides e compostos voláteis derivados de aminoácidos e ácidos graxos. Por fim, metabólitos primários, metabólitos secundários, enzimas e compostos voláteis importantes para o aroma dos frutos de tomate foram correlacionados em análises de vias metabólicas específicas. Considerando os resultados obtidos, observamos o efeito de cada hormônio estudado na modulação dos metabolismos primário e secundário, e, consequentemente, na formação de compostos voláteis, reforçando não apenas a importância do etileno e da auxina na regulação do amadurecimento, assim como o papel do crosstalk entre etileno e auxina no desenvolvimento do aroma do tomate.Considerable progress has been made in studying climacteric fruit ripening. However, knowledge of ethylene-dependent and independent regulatory processes involved in this process is limited, and the roles of auxin and other ripening-related hormones remain to be elucidated. Studies have evaluated the roles of auxin and ethylene-auxin crosstalk in secondary metabolism in tomato fruits and highlighted the need to deepen existing knowledge and improve understanding of the roles of both hormones in regulating aroma formation in climacteric fruits. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the ethylene-auxin crosstalk and its influence on the volatile compound metabolism during tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit ripening by comparative metabolomic and proteomic analysis. Tomato fruits cv. Micro-Tom at the mature green stage were randomly separated into four groups according to hormone treatments: CTRL (without treatment); ETHY (ethylene treatment); IAA (indole-3-acetic acid treatment); and ETHY+IAA (both hormone treatments). The color shift and ethylene emission were determined daily. Polar and non-polar metabolic profiles were obtained separately at 0, 8, and 18 days after harvest (DAH) by GC-MS, while proteomic analysis was conducted at 0 and 8 DAH by LC-MS. Volatile compounds were analyzed on specific days. Hormone treatments significantly altered the levels of both primary and secondary metabolites and the enzymes involved in the related metabolisms. Enrichment analyses showed which pathways were significantly influenced by ethylene and auxin treatments, including those of secondary metabolisms, such as the biosynthetic pathways of terpenoids, carotenoids, and volatile compounds derived from amino acids and fatty acids. Finally, primary and secondary metabolites, enzymes, and volatile compounds important for tomato fruit aroma were correlated in specific pathway analyses. Considering the obtained results, we observed the effect of each studied hormone in modulating primary and secondary metabolisms and therefore volatile compound formation, reinforcing both the importance of ethylene and auxin in regulating ripening and the role of ethylene-auxin crosstalk in regulating the tomato fruit aroma

Post-Harvest Treatment with Methyl Jasmonate Impacts Lipid Metabolism in Tomato Pericarp (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. Grape) at Different Ripening Stages

The application of exogenous jasmonate can stimulate the production of ethylene, carotenoids, and aroma compounds and accelerate fruit ripening. These alterations improve fruit quality and make fruit desirable for human consumption. However, fruit over-ripening results in large losses of fruit crops. This problem is overcome by applying 1-methylcyclopropene to the fruits, due to its capacity to block the ethylene receptors, suppressing fruit ripening. In this study, treatments with only 1-methylcyclopropene and both 1-methylcyclopropene and methyl jasmonate were administered to observe whether exogenous methyl jasmonate can improve the metabolite levels in fruits with blocked ethylene receptors. Fruit pericarps were analyzed at 4, 10, and 21 days after harvest (DAH) and compared with untreated fruits. The post-harvest treatments affected primary metabolites (sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and fatty acids) and secondary metabolites (carotenoids, tocopherols, and phytosterols). However, the lipid metabolism of the tomatoes was most impacted by the exogenous jasmonate. Fatty acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, and phytosterols showed a delay in their production at 4 and 10 DAH. Conversely, at 21 DAH, these non-polar metabolites exhibited an important improvement in their accumulation

Venomous Noodles: The Evolution of Toxins in Nemertea through Positive Selection and Gene Duplication

Some, probably most and perhaps all, members of the phylum Nemertea are poisonous, documented so far from marine and benthic specimens. Although the toxicity of these animals has been long known, systematic studies on the characterization of toxins, mechanisms of toxicity, and toxin evolution for this group are scarce. Here, we present the first investigation of the molecular evolution of toxins in Nemertea. Using a proteo-transcriptomic approach, we described toxins in the body and poisonous mucus of the pilidiophoran Lineus sanguineus and the hoplonemertean Nemertopsis pamelaroeae. Using these new and publicly available transcriptomes, we investigated the molecular evolution of six selected toxin gene families. In addition, we also characterized in silico the toxin genes found in the interstitial hoplonemertean, Ototyphlonemertes erneba, a meiofaunal taxa. We successfully identified over 200 toxin transcripts in each of these species. Evidence of positive selection and gene duplication was observed in all investigated toxin genes. We hypothesized that the increased rates of gene duplications observed for Pilidiophora could be involved with the expansion of toxin genes. Studies concerning the natural history of Nemertea are still needed to understand the evolution of their toxins. Nevertheless, our results show evolutionary mechanisms similar to other venomous groups

Chitosan oligosaccharides affect xanthone and VOC biosynthesis in Hypericum perforatum root cultures and enhance the antifungal activity of root extracts

Water-soluble chitosan oligosaccharides (COS) affect xanthone and volatile organic compound content, as well as antifungal activity against human pathogenic fungi of extracts obtained from Hypericum perforatum root cultures. Several studies have demonstrated the elicitor power of chitosan on xanthone biosynthesis in root cultures of H. perforatum. One of the major limitations to the use of chitosan, both for basic and applied research, is the need to use acidified water for solubilization. To overcome this problem, the elicitor effect of water-soluble chitosan oligosaccharides (COS) on the biosynthesis of both xanthones and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was evaluated in the present study. The analysis of xanthones and VOCs was performed by HPLC and GC-MS headspace analysis. The obtained results showed that COS are very effective in enhancing xanthone biosynthesis. With 400 mg L-1 COS, a xanthone content of about 30 mg g-1 DW was obtained. The antifungal activity of extracts obtained with 400 mg L-1 COS was the highest, with MIC50 of 32 μg mL-1 against Candida albicans and 32-64 μg mL-1 against dermatophytes, depending on the microorganism. Histochemical investigations suggested the accumulation of isoprenoids in the secretory ducts of H. perforatum roots. The presence of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes was confirmed by the headspace analysis. Other volatile hydrocarbons have been identified. The biosynthesis of most VOCs showed significant changes in response to COS, suggesting their involvement in plant-fungus interactions

Stratification of Volunteers According to Flavanone Metabolite Excretion and Phase II Metabolism Profile after Single Doses of ‘Pera’ Orange and ‘Moro’ Blood Orange Juices

Large interindividual variations in the biological response to citrus flavanones have been observed, and this could be associated with high variations in their bioavailability. The aim of this study was to identify the main determinants underlying interindividual differences in citrus flavanone metabolism and excretion. In a randomized cross-over study, non-obese and obese volunteers, aged 19–40 years, ingested single doses of Pera and Moro orange juices, and urine was collected for 24 h. A large difference in the recovery of the urinary flavanone phase II metabolites was observed, with hesperetin-sulfate and hesperetin-sulfo-O-glucuronide being the major metabolites. Subjects were stratified according to their total excretion of flavanone metabolites as high, medium, and low excretors, but the expected correlation with the microbiome was not observed at the genus level. A second stratification was proposed according to phase II flavanone metabolism, whereby participants were divided into two excretion groups: Profiles A and B. Profile B individuals showed greater biotransformation of hesperetin-sulfate to hesperetin-sulfo-O-glucuronide, as well as transformation of flavanone-monoglucuronide to the respective diglucuronides, suggestive of an influence of polymorphisms on UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. In conclusion, this study proposes a new stratification of volunteers based on their metabolic profiles. Gut microbiota composition and polymorphisms of phase II enzymes may be related to the interindividual variability of metabolism

Stratification of Volunteers According to Flavanone Metabolite Excretion and Phase II Metabolism Profile after Single Doses of ‘Pera’ Orange and ‘Moro’ Blood Orange Juices

Large interindividual variations in the biological response to citrus flavanones have been observed, and this could be associated with high variations in their bioavailability. The aim of this study was to identify the main determinants underlying interindividual differences in citrus flavanone metabolism and excretion. In a randomized cross-over study, non-obese and obese volunteers, aged 19–40 years, ingested single doses of Pera and Moro orange juices, and urine was collected for 24 h. A large difference in the recovery of the urinary flavanone phase II metabolites was observed, with hesperetin-sulfate and hesperetin-sulfo-O-glucuronide being the major metabolites. Subjects were stratified according to their total excretion of flavanone metabolites as high, medium, and low excretors, but the expected correlation with the microbiome was not observed at the genus level. A second stratification was proposed according to phase II flavanone metabolism, whereby participants were divided into two excretion groups: Profiles A and B. Profile B individuals showed greater biotransformation of hesperetin-sulfate to hesperetin-sulfo-O-glucuronide, as well as transformation of flavanone-monoglucuronide to the respective diglucuronides, suggestive of an influence of polymorphisms on UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. In conclusion, this study proposes a new stratification of volunteers based on their metabolic profiles. Gut microbiota composition and polymorphisms of phase II enzymes may be related to the interindividual variability of metabolism

Volatile profile and sensory quality of new varieties of Capsicum chinense pepper Perfil de voláteis e qualidade sensorial de novas variedades de pimentas Capsicum chinense

The objective of this study was to compare the sensory quality and the volatile compound profile of new varieties of Capsicum chinense pepper (CNPH 4080 a strain of'Cumari-do-Pará' and BRS Seriema) with a known commercial variety (Biquinho). Volatiles were isolated from the headspace of fresh fruit by SPME and identified by GC-MS. Pickled peppers were produced for sensory evaluation. Aroma descriptors were evaluated by Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) method, and the frequency data were submitted to Correspondence Analysis. Flavor acceptance was assessed by hedonic scale and analyzed by ANOVA. BRS Seriema showed the richest volatile profile, with 55 identified compounds, and up to 40% were compounds with sweet aroma notes. CNPH 4080 showed similar volatile profile to that of Biquinho pepper, but it had higher amounts of pepper-like and green-note compounds. The samples did not differ in terms of flavor acceptance, but they showed differences in aroma quality confirming the differences found in the volatile profiles. The C. chinense varieties developed by Embrapa proved to be more aromatic than Biquinho variety, and were well accepted by the judges.O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a qualidade sensorial e o perfil de compostos voláteis de novas variedades de pimenta Capsicum (CNPH 4080, uma linhagem de cumari-do-pará, e BRS Seriema), com uma variedade comercial (Biquinho). Voláteis foram isolados do headspace dos frutos in natura por SPME e identificados por CG-EM. Conservas das pimentas foram produzidas para a análise sensorial. Descritores do aroma foram avaliados pelo método Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) e os dados de frequência submetidos à Análise de Correspondência. A aceitação do sabor das amostras foi analisada por meio de ANOVA. A BRS Seriema apresentou rico perfil de voláteis, com 53 compostos identificados, sendo que cerca de 40% deles são compostos de aroma doce. A CNPH 4080 apresentou perfil semelhante ao da pimenta Biquinho, porém com compostos de odor de pimenta e notas aromáticas verdes em maiores quantidades. As amostras não diferiram entre si quanto à aceitação do sabor, contudo evidenciaram diferenças na qualidade do aroma, confirmando as diferenças encontradas no perfil de voláteis. As variedades C. chinense desenvolvidas pela Embrapa demonstraram ser mais aromáticas que a variedade Biquinho, sendo que todas as amostras agradaram aos consumidores

Induction of Metabolic Changes in Amino Acid, Fatty Acid, Tocopherol, and Phytosterol Profiles by Exogenous Methyl Jasmonate Application in Tomato Fruits

Methyl jasmonate hormone can stimulate the production of several metabolites responsible for improving fruit quality and nutritional attributes related to human health. In this context, efforts to manipulate tomatoes, such as using hormonal treatment to increase metabolite levels essential to plant growth and human nutrition, have received considerable attention. The aim of this study was to show the impact of metabolic profile on fruit quality and nutritional properties under exogenous methyl jasmonate during fruit ripening. The treatments were performed using 100 ppm of methyl jasmonate and 100 ppm of gaseous ethylene over 24 h. Ethylene emission, fruit surface color and metabolomics analysis were measured at 4, 10, and 21 days after harvest, considering the untreated fruits as control group. Methyl jasmonate induced the production of amino acids—mainly glutamine, glutamic acid and γ-aminobutyric acid (at least 14-fold higher)—and fatty acids—mainly oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids (at least three-fold higher than untreated fruits); while exogenous ethylene predominantly affected sugar metabolism, increasing the levels of fructose, mannose and glucose to at least two-fold that levels in the untreated fruits. Additionally, methyl jasmonate significantly affected secondary metabolites, inducing by at least 80% the accumulation of α-tocopherol and β-sitosterol in fully ripe fruits. Our results suggest that the postharvest application of the hormone methyl jasmonate can contribute to the sensory characteristics and increase the nutritional value of the fruits since important changes related to the tomato metabolome were associated with compounds responsible for the fruit quality and health benefits

Volatile profile and sensory quality of new varieties of Capsicum chinense pepper

The objective of this study was to compare the sensory quality and the volatile compound profile of new varieties of Capsicum chinense pepper (CNPH 4080 a strain of'Cumari-do-Pará' and BRS Seriema) with a known commercial variety (Biquinho). Volatiles were isolated from the headspace of fresh fruit by SPME and identified by GC-MS. Pickled peppers were produced for sensory evaluation. Aroma descriptors were evaluated by Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) method, and the frequency data were submitted to Correspondence Analysis. Flavor acceptance was assessed by hedonic scale and analyzed by ANOVA. BRS Seriema showed the richest volatile profile, with 55 identified compounds, and up to 40% were compounds with sweet aroma notes. CNPH 4080 showed similar volatile profile to that of Biquinho pepper, but it had higher amounts of pepper-like and green-note compounds. The samples did not differ in terms of flavor acceptance, but they showed differences in aroma quality confirming the differences found in the volatile profiles. The C. chinense varieties developed by Embrapa proved to be more aromatic than Biquinho variety, and were well accepted by the judges