Variation in African American parents' use of early childhood physical discipline

Physical discipline is endorsed by a majority of adults in the U.S. including African American (AA) parents who have high rates of endorsement. Although many studies have examined physical discipline use among AA families, few have considered how early childhood physical discipline varies within the population. Individuals within a cultural group may differ in their engagement in cultural practices (Rogoff, 2003). Furthermore, AA families’ characteristics and their contexts, which are shaped by the interaction of social position, racism, and segregation (García Coll et al., 1996), likely influence how AA families physically discipline their young children. This study examined variation in early childhood physical discipline among AA families living in low-income communities and relations with demographic and contextual factors. Year 1 data from 310 AA parents living in three regionally distinct low-income communities were used from a sequential longitudinal intervention program study of the development and prevention of conduct disorder. Latent class analyses were conducted using parents’ responses on a measure, of the frequency of overall physical discipline, spanking, and hitting during prekindergarten and kindergarten. The associations between latent classes and six demographic and contextual factors were examined using the Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars (BCH) method. The factors were: child gender (59% male); marital status (51% never married); parental education (66% high school graduates and beyond); income (mean = $16.66K, S.D. = 12.50), family stress, and perception of neighborhood safety. Measures included the Family Information Form, Life Changes, and the Neighborhood Questionnaire. After considering two to seven class solutions, five physical discipline classes or sub-groups were identified. Classes were defined by discipline frequency (‘Infrequent’, ‘Weekly’, ‘Monthly’, ‘Almost-Every-Day’ and ‘Weekly-All’) as well as by discipline type (only parents in the ‘Weekly-All’ class hit their children). Significant associations were found between class membership, and child gender, marital status, income, and perception of neighborhood safety. Girls were more likely to be physically disciplined infrequently, χ2(4, N = 310) = 11.88, p = .05. The ‘Weekly’ class had significantly fewer married parents than all classes except ‘Almost-Every-Day’, χ2(4, N = 310) = 21.56, p < .001. Parents in the ‘Almost-Every-Day’ class had a significantly lower income than parents in all other classes except “Weekly-All”, χ2(4, N = 310) = 10.88, p = .03. Finally, parents in the “Almost-Every-Day” class perceived their neighborhood as significantly less safe compared to those in all other classes except the ‘Weekly-All’ class, χ2(4, N = 310) = 14.13 p = .01. These findings suggest that AA families vary in physical discipline during early childhood; this variation may result in sub-groups with different demographic characteristics. Associations between frequent discipline classes and perceptions of neighborhood safety implies that some AA parents may use physical discipline to protect their children from being harmed if they believe their communities are unsafe. Future research should qualitatively examine how AA parents respond to unsafe neighborhoods in their parenting behaviors, including physical discipline

The Role of Developmental Comprehension in Understanding Microaggressions in Transracially-Adopted Children

Transracially adopted children often experience challenges in the development of identity. Researchers have found that people of minority race often go through a period of questioning ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990); however, little research has been conducted in similar development among adopted children. Growing up as a minority both in ethnic and adoptive status, transracial adoptees may face many obstacles in developing a healthy identity. Specifically, children may experience developmental setback frequently in the form of microaggressions. Microaggressions, regardless of intent, attribute stereotypical qualities to the recipients and invalidate individual differences between group members. Internalization of these messages at an early age may imply that the child has accepted these messages to be true. Adoption is a multi-faceted process- involving many people, concepts, and emotions- that many parents strive to help their adopted children understand. In early cognitive-developmental years, children themselves may convey several micro-aggressions due to the lack of conceptual understanding of their racial and adoptive identity. Beginning with the utilization of adoption language, children develop an understanding of adoption that grows with age (Brodzinsky, 2014). The present study intends to examine and interpret the different types of microaggressions internalized and committed by children of different ages by examining transracial adoptees aged 5-11 from China (N=8). Child interviews were coded for adoption and racial microaggressions experienced by the child. Microaggressions were further coded for who committed and who experienced them. Analyses were conducted on those that were committed and internalized by the child. Participants were analyzed in terms of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including preoperational children ages 5-7 (N=3) and concrete-operational children ages 8-11 (N=5). Preliminary analyses found that transracial adoptees of both age groups tend to internalize and commit microaggressions more frequently than they experience them from others. Of the microaggressions committed, most are adoption-related rather than racial. These trends support Brodzinsky’s findings that young children have difficulty conceptually understanding adoption, perhaps indicating a need to increase education and promotion of a healthy adoption identity. Concrete-Operational children committed more microaggressions than their preoperational counterparts, mostly falling under “biology is best/normative” and “phantom birth parent” codes. At this stage in life, adoptees become aware of the importance of heredity and biology in family dynamics, yet fail to employ abstract thinking that would allow them to consider the perspective and importance of the birth parent. Further studies of a larger sample size, including a wider range of developmental ages may corroborate these results as well as find a decrease in number of internalized microaggressions among older children. By studying the prevalence and types of microaggressions committed by transracial adoptees, we may be able to better understand how children comprehend adoption, and possibly develop interventions to increase age-appropriate education and promote healthy identity development

Ethnic Racial Socialization Among Inracial International Adoptive Placements

Parents of international adoptees are encouraged to provide ethnic socialization for their children. Retrospective evidence from adult adoptees suggests this is important for identity development, particularly among transracially adopted persons. However little is known about ethnic identity development among children placed internationally in in-racial placements. It is unknown whether a focus on ethnic socialization by the adoptive family might further distinguish an adopted child as different, or relate to an adoptee’s increased perception of adoption visibility. The current study examined the ethnic identity development of 31 adoptees ages 11-18 in in-racial international adoptive placements. Adoption visibility, perceived self-competence, and affiliation with the adoptee’s country-of-origin ethnic group and the adoptive family’s ethnic group were assessed using an online questionnaire. The survey was completed by both the adoptee and the adoptive parent. Analyses of responses indicates that the majority of adoptees do not feel highly visible with respect to physical dissimilarity and have positive feelings about adoption and their birth countries. The vast majority of parents indicate that they have provided the right amount of exposure to the adoptee’s culture of origin. However, adoptees who affiliate more strongly with the ethnicity and culture of their birth countries have higher perceived self-competence than those who affiliate more strongly with the culture of their adoptive families. This suggests that ethnic socialization is important for all adoptive families regardless of racial identification. Further analysis will explore parental exposure to birth country culture as related to geographic area, as well as other relational factors like parent-child relationship closeness. Implications for policy and practice for families with in-racial placements will be discussed

Distinguishing between demographics and contextual factors linked to early childhood physical discipline and physical maltreatment among Black families

Published in final edited form as: Child Abuse Negl. 2019 August ; 94: 104020. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.05.013.BACKGROUND: Despite persistent discouragement from professionals, U.S. parents, especially Black parents, highly endorse physical discipline, which also is a risk factor for physical maltreatment. Few studies have examined physical discipline heterogeneity or maltreatment, and predictive demographic and contextual factors within the same population. OBJECTIVE: This exploratory study aimed to identify subgroups of Black parents’ use of early childhood physical discipline. It also examined whether demographic and contextual factors’ relations with physical discipline were similar or different from those with physical maltreatment. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: 310 Black parents from three geographically-distinct high-risk U.S. communities participated in home-based interview and survey data collection. METHODS: We conducted latent class analyses to identify sub-groups among Black parents characterized by physical discipline frequency and type. Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars method and binary logistic regression were conducted to examine relations between demographic and contextual factors (child gender, family income, marital status, parental education, family stress and perceived neighborhood safety), discipline and maltreatment. RESULTS: Three physical discipline classes, which differed in frequency and type, were identified among Black parents. Only income was significantly related to both discipline (x2=18.97, p<.001) and maltreatment (OR=1.03, p<.01). Child gender (x2=6.66, p<.01), never-married status (x2=13.94, p<.001), parental education (x2=10.32, p<.001), and neighborhood safety (x2=7.57, p<.01) also significantly related to discipline. Family stress was significantly related to physical maltreatment (OR=1.42, p<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Differing demographic and contextual factor relations with physical discipline and maltreatment within a Black population should be considered when identifying parents at-risk.Accepted manuscrip

Out of the Mouths of Babes: Developmental Differences in Young Children\u27s Microaggressions and Relations with Parent-Child Discussions

Throughout their development, transracial adoptees (TRAs) must navigate visible differences from their adoptive family, which frequently prompt public comment (Wegar, 2000). Even in the absence of family, TRAs experience questions and comments from peers about their difference (Vashchenko et al, 2012). Whether from strangers or peers, well-meaning or intentional, these comments may reflect microaggressions—daily verbal, behavioral or environmental messages, intentional or unintentional that communicate hostile or negative slights and insults (Sue et al, 2007). With ongoing exposure to racial or adoption microaggressions (Baden, 2016), young children may internalize messages that they have heard, and repeat the themes without full awareness of the impact of the messages. Yet, as children grow and become more cognitively sophisticated, they are better able to understand negative messages they hear and may refrain from conveying microaggressions. Little is known about whether there are developmental differences in microaggressions that children convey. As encouraged by adoption professionals, parents may engage in discussions with TRAs in order to promote children’s understanding of their adoptive and racial status and identity development. These discussions, a component of adoption socialization (AS) and cultural socialization (CS), may enhance identity and inoculate children against internalization of microaggressions. Hence, TRAs who have these discussions may convey fewer microaggressions. Parents may have other discussions with TRAs in order to empower them to deal with stigma and microaggressions they will face (preparation for bias; PfB; Hughes et al., 2006). Nothing is known about these three types of parent-child discussions and their relations with microaggressions conveyed by TRAs. This exploratory study will examine: 1) what types of adoption and racial microaggressions are conveyed by young children?; 2) are there developmental differences in the microaggressions conveyed?; and 3) to what extent are parent-child AS, CS or PfB discussions related to the number of microaggressions conveyed by children? Forty parents and their children ages 5-10 adopted from China comprise the sample. Using a qualitative coding procedure, committed (or conveyed) microaggressions were coded when children’s discourse contained bias. Empowering discussions were coded when in response to microaggressions parents helped children develop coping strategies or provided information/explanations about biases. Parent-child discussions about AS and CS were coded from parent interviews, using a three-level coding system (often, occasionally, rarely/never) to code the frequency of race and adoption discussions. Preliminary analyses of 18 families showed: children conveyed 1 to 6 microaggressions (μ=3). Parent-child empowering discussions ranged from 0 to 4 (μ=1). Parent-child discussions about race ranged from 0-2 (μ=1); discussions about adoption ranged from 0-2 (μ=1.6). Age was moderately related (trend) to the number of child-conveyed microaggressions (r= -.41): older children conveyed fewer microaggresions. Parent-child empowering discussions were moderately correlated with children’s microaggressions (r= -.35): children who had more empowering discussions conveyed fewer microaggressions. Parent-child discussions about AS (-.19) and CS (.04) showed modest or no relation to children’s microaggressions, respectively. Further analyses with the full sample of 40 will examine these relations and whether parent-child discussions moderate possible age differences

How does racial context matter?: Family preparation-for-bias messages and Black youths’ racial coping reported by Black youth

Black families and youth likely consider specific racial discriminatory situations in preparation‐for‐bias messages and racial coping responses. Our study investigated coping responses embedded in youth‐reported Black families’ preparation‐for‐bias messages and youths’ proactive coping responses to specific racially discriminatory situations—teachers’ negative expectations, store employees’ hyper‐monitoring and police harassment. Gender and racial discrimination experience differences were considered along with relations between messages and coping. Our investigation was guided by the integrated‐developmental, transactional/ecological, intersectionality, and Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory theoretical frameworks. We conducted cluster analyses using data from 117 Black youth aged 13–14 to identify situation‐specific family messages and youth coping responses. Families’ messages and youths’ responses varied in content and frequency based on the specific discriminatory situation, which suggests consideration of context.Accepted manuscript2021-10-2

The Social and Cultural Context of Coping with Sickle Cell Disease: I. A Review of Biomedical and Psychosocial Issues

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is widely conceived in the United States as a group of blood disorders that principally affect African Americans. Although pain is its principal feature, strokes, lung problems, sepsis, anxiety, depression, impaired social functioning, and maladjustment at work are frequent concomitants. This article selectively reviews biomedical and psychosocial aspects of SCD related to pain assessment, medical treatment, genetic counseling, education, and employment. The strongest support exists for claims of social deficits among adolescents and depression and work-related problems among adults. The social context of SCD, including issues related to socioeconomic status (SES), urbanicity, ethnicity, cultural values, and racial stigmatization, are important to include in empirical assessments and theoretical analyses of the effects of SCD on children and their families. The adverse psychosocial functioning often described as an effect of SCD might indeed be a consequence of these factors acting alone or in concert with the strains of SCD.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/67048/2/10.1177_0095798499025003002.pd

Fast Track Randomized Controlled Trial to Prevent Externalizing Psychiatric Disorders: Findings From Grades 3 to 9

This study tests the efficacy of the Fast Track Program in preventing antisocial behavior and psychiatric disorders among groups varying in initial risk