Maternal probiotic intervention and luminal IgA levels.

<p>Effect of maternal probiotic intervention on Ln-transformed faecal IgA concentrations (LnFIgA, least squares means+SE). Initial IgA data were expressed as µg/gr faeces. The figure presents aggregated data across test days (PND 24 and 86).The filled bar represents animals born to probiotic-treated dams (n = 101) and the hollow bar represents animals born to vehicle-treated dams (n = 113). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Effect of maternal probiotic intake and stress on adult gut microflora.

<p>Effect of maternal probiotic intake, neonatal maternal separation (MS) and adult restraint stress (AS) on faecal counts of anaerobes, enterococci and clostridia (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE) in Wistar rats at week 12. Hollow bars represent no-stress control animals or those exposed to adult stress (AS): control vehicle (n = 11–19), AS vehicle (n = 18–20), control probiotic (n = 17), AS probiotic (n = 17). Filled bars represent MS or MS+AS animals: MS vehicle (n = 20), MS+AS vehicle (n = 20), MS probiotic (n = 18), MS+AS probiotic (n = 19). An asterisk (*) shows significant difference compared to non-stressed (NS-NA) animals in the vehicle subset (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Effect of early life stress and maternal probiotic intake on neonatal gut microflora.

<p>Effect of neonatal maternal separation (MS) and maternal probiotic intake on composition of gut microflora (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE) in Wistar rats at PND 24. Hollow bars represent animals exposed to no neonatal stress (NS): NS vehicle (n = 14–20), NS probiotic (n = 19–20). Filled bars represent animals exposed to neonatal maternal separation (MS): MS vehicle (n = 19–20), MS probiotic (n = 20). An asterisk (*) shows significant difference compared to NS animals in the vehicle subset (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Effect of maternal probiotic intervention and stress on ACTH levels.

<p><b>A</b>) Effect of neonatal maternal separation (MS) on natural log transformed plasma ACTH concentrations (LnACTH, least squares means+SE). Initial ACTH data were expressed as pg/mL plasma. The filled bar represents neonatally separated animals (MS, n = 107) and the hollow bar represents non-separated animals (NS, n = 111). <b>B</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intervention on natural log transformed plasma ACTH concentrations (LnACTH, least squares means+SE). Hollow bar represents animals born to vehicle-treated dams (n = 111). Filled bar represents animals born to probiotic-treated dams (n = 107). <b>C</b>) Effect of adult stress on natural log transformed plasma ACTH concentrations (LnACTH, least squares means+SE). Hollow bar represents animals exposed to no adult stress (NA, n = 71). Filled bar represents animals exposed to adult stress (AS, (n = 72). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Effect of maternal probiotics, stress and gender on adult corticosterone levels.

<p><b>A</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intervention and sex on natural log (Ln) transformed plasma corticosterone levels (LnCort, least squares means+SE). Initial corticosterone data were expressed as ng/mL plasma. The figure presents aggregated data across test days (PND 24 and 86). Hollow bars represent males: male vehicle (n = 71), male probiotic (n = 53). Filled bars represent females: female vehicle (n = 62), female probiotic (n = 58). <b>B</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intervention and adult restraint stress on Ln-transformed plasma corticosterone concentrations (LnCort, least squares means+SE) in adulthood (week 12).Hollow bars represent animals exposed to no-stress in adulthood (NA): NA vehicle (n = 39), NA probiotic (n = 35). Filled bars represent animals exposed to stress in adulthood (AS): AS vehicle (n = 39), AS probiotic (n = 36). <b>C</b>) Effect of adult restraint stress and sex on Ln-transformed plasma corticosterone concentrations (LnCort, least squares means+SE) in adulthood (week 12). Hollow bars represent males: NA male (n = 35), AS males (n = 36). Filled bars represent females: NA females (n = 39), AS females (n = 39). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Effect of maternal probiotic intervention, stress, and gender on plasma IgA levels.

<p><b>A</b>) Effect of sex on Ln-transformed plasma IgA concentrations (LnPIgA, least squares means+SE) in rats. The figure presents aggregated data across test days (PND 24 and 86). Initial IgA data were expressed as µg/mL plasma. The hollow bar represents males (n = 109) and the filled bar represents females (n = 117). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference (<i>p</i>≤0.05). <b>B</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intake and neonatal maternal separation (MS) on Ln-transformed plasma IgA concentrations (LnPIgA, least squares means+SE) in rats at PND 24. The hollow bars represent animals exposed to no-MS (NS): NS vehicle (n = 15), NS probiotic (n = 19). The filled bars represent animals exposed to MS: MS vehicle (n = 19), MS probiotic (n = 20). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference relative to vehicle NS animals (<i>p</i>≤0.05). <b>C</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intake, neonatal maternal separation (MS) and adult restraint stress (AS) on Ln-transformed plasma IgA concentrations (LnPIgA, least squares means+SE) in adult rats. Hollow bars represent no-stress control animals or those exposed to adult stress (AS): control vehicle (n = 21), AS vehicle (n = 20), control probiotic (n = 17), AS probiotic (n = 17). Filled bars represent MS or MS+AS animals: MS vehicle (n = 20), MS+AS vehicle (n = 20), MS probiotic (n = 18), MS+AS probiotic (n = 19). An asterisk (*) shows significant difference compared to control animals in the vehicle subset (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p

Subjective symptoms of cybersickness depend on the direction of virtual ride.

<p>From left to right total: MSAQ score, gastrointestinal symptoms, central symptoms, peripheral symptoms and sopite symptoms. * and **—p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively.</p

Subjective symptoms of cybersickness depend on the direction of virtual ride.

<p>Subjective symptoms of cybersickness depend on the direction of virtual ride.</p

Changes in physiological parameters during forward (black bars) and backward (grey bars) virtual rides.

<p>Each graph shows data values for the last minute of baseline period and for the last minute of simulated ride. A—Heart rate; B—Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences in R-R intervals (RMSSD); C—Standard Deviation of RR interval (SDRR); D—Forehead tonic (DC) skin conductance; E—Forehead phasic skin conductance spike frequency; F—Forehead phasic (AC) skin conductance spike amplitude RMS. * and **—p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively.</p

Effect of maternal probiotic intake, stress and gender on faecal counts of <i>E. coli</i>.

<p><b>A</b>) Effect of sex on faecal counts of <i>E. coli</i> (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE) in rats. The figure presents aggregated data across test days (PND 24 and 86).The hollow bar represents males (M, n = 109) and the filled bar represents females (F, n = 112). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference (<i>p</i>≤0.05). <b>B</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intake and neonatal maternal separation (MS) on faecal counts of <i>E. coli</i> (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE). The figure presents aggregated data across test days (PND 24 and 86).The hollow bars represent animals exposed to no-MS (NS): NS vehicle (n = 52), NS probiotic (n = 51). The filled bars represent animals exposed to MS: MS vehicle (n = 60), MS probiotic (n = 56). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference relative to vehicle NNS animals (p≤0.05). <b>C</b>) Effect of MS and AS on faecal counts of <i>E. coli</i> (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE) in adult Wistar rats (week 12). The hollow bars represent no-stress control animals or those exposed to AS: control (n = 33), AS (n = 37). The filled bars represent animals exposed to MS or MS+AS: MS (n = 38), MS+AS (n = 39). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference compared to the control (<i>p</i>≤0.05). <b>D</b>) Effect of maternal probiotic intake and AS on faecal counts of <i>E. coli</i> (Log CFU/gr, least squares means+SE) in adult Wistar rats (week 12). The hollow bars represent animals exposed to no-AS (NA): NA vehicle (n = 38), NA probiotic (n = 33). The filled bars represent animals exposed to AS: AS vehicle (n = 40), AS probiotic (n = 36). An asterisk (*) indicates statistical significant difference relative to vehicle NAS animals (<i>p</i>≤0.05).</p