Specific Binding at the Cellulose Binding Module–Cellulose Interface Observed by Force Spectroscopy

The need for effective enzymatic depolymerization of cellulose has stimulated an interest in interactions between protein and cellulose. Techniques utilized for quantitative measurements of protein–cellulose noncovalent association include microgravimetry, calorimetry, and atomic force microscopy (AFM), none of which differentiate between specific protein–cellulose binding and nonspecific adhesion. Here, we describe an AFM approach that differentiates nonspecific from specific interactions between cellulose-binding modules (CBMs) and cellulose. We demonstrate that the “mismatched” interaction between murine galectin-3, a lectin with no known affinity for cellulose, and cellulose shows molecular recognition force microscopy profiles similar to those observed during the interaction of a “matched” clostridial CBM3a with the same substrate. We also examine differences in binding probabilities and rupture profiles during CBM–cellulose binding experiments in the presence and absence of a blocking agenta substrate specific for CBM that presumably blocks binding sites. By comparison of the behavior of the two proteins, we separate specific (i.e., blockable) and nonspecific adhesion events and show that both classes of interaction exhibit nearly identical rupture forces (45 pN at ∼0.4 nN/s). Our work provides an important caveat for the interpretation of protein–carbohydrate binding by force spectroscopy; delineation of the importance of such interactions to other classes of binding warrants further study

Influence of Environment on the Measurement of Rates of Charge Transport across Ag^TS/SAM//Ga₂O₃/EGaIn Junctions

This paper investigates the influence of the atmosphere used in the fabrication of top electrodes from the liquid eutectic of gallium and indium (EGaIn) (the so-called “EGaIn” electrodes), and in measurements of current density, <i>J</i>(V) (A/cm²), across self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) incorporated into Ag/SR//Ga₂O₃/EGaIn junctions, on values of <i>J</i>(V) obtained using these electrodes. A gas-tight measurement chamber was used to control the atmosphere in which the electrodes were formed, and also to control the environment in which the electrodes were used to measure current densities across SAM-based junctions. Seven different atmospheresair, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and ammonia, as well as air containing vapors of acetic acid or waterwere surveyed using both “rough” conical-tip electrodes, and “smooth” hanging-drop electrodes. (The manipulation of the oxide film during the creation of the conical-tip electrodes leads to substantial, micrometer-scale roughness on the surface of the electrode, the extrusion of the drop creates a significantly smoother surface.) Comparing junctions using both geometries for the electrodes, across a SAM of <i>n</i>-dodecanethiol, in air, gave log |<i>J</i>|_mean = −2.4 ± 0.4 for the conical tip, and log |<i>J</i>|_mean = −0.6 ± 0.3 for the drop electrode (and, thus, Δlog |<i>J</i>| ≈ 1.8); this increase in current density is attributed to a change in the effective electrical contact area of the junction. To establish the influence of the resistivity of the Ga₂O₃ film on values of <i>J</i>(V), junctions comprising a graphite electrode and a hanging-drop electrode were compared in an experiment where the electrodes did, and did not, have a surface oxide film; the presence of the oxide did not influence measurements of log |<i>J</i>(V)|, and therefore did not contribute to the electrical resistance of the electrode. However, the presence of an oxide film did improve the stability of junctions and increase the yield of working electrodes from ∼70% to ∼100%. Increasing the relative humidity (RH) in which <i>J</i>(V) was measured did not influence these values (across methyl (CH₃)- or carboxyl (CO₂H)-terminated SAMs) over the range typically encountered in the laboratory (20%–60% (RH))