Potential impact of adjustment policies on vulnerability of women and children to HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa

This paper evaluates the potential impact of adjustment policies of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on the vulnerability of women and children to HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. A conceptual framework, composed of five different pathways of causation, is used for the evaluation. These five pathways connect changes at the macro level (e.g. removal of food subsidies) with effects at the meso (e.g. higher food prices) and micro levels (e.g. exposure of women and children to commercial sex) that influence the vulnerability of women and children to HIV/AIDS. Published literature on adjustment policies and socioeconomic determinants of HIV/AIDS among women and children in sub-Saharan Africa was reviewed to explore the cause-effect relationships included in the theoretical framework. Evidence suggests that adjustment policies may inadvertently produce conditions facilitating the exposure of women and children to HIV/AIDS. Complex research designs are needed to further investigate this relationship. A shift in emphasis from an individual approach to a socioeconomic approach in the study of HIV infection among women and children in the developing world is suggested. Given the potential for adjustment policies to exacerbate the AIDS pandemic among women and children, a careful examination of the effects of these policies on maternal and child welfare is urgently needed

User fees impact access to healthcare for female children in rural Zambia

The World Bank and International Monetary Fund favor healthcare user fees. User fees offer revenue and may decrease inappropriate care. However, user fees may deter needed care, especially in vulnerable populations. A cross-sectional analysis of healthcare utilization in a large Zambian hospital was conducted for children 3-6 years of age during a 1-month observation period. Diagnoses and treatments were compared using paired t-tests. Chi-squared tests compared outpatient service use. The relative risk of admission was determined for each stratum. Logistic models were developed to evaluate the impact of age, gender, and the age-gender interaction on hospital admissions. Trends suggest female children may be less likely to present for care when user fees are imposed. However, treatment type, treatment number, and number of diagnoses did not differ between genders. The relative risk of admission was highest for males 5-6 years old. Neither age nor gender alone was a significant determinant of hospital admission. However, the age-gender interaction was significant with female admissions least likely when costs were incurred. We conclude that user fees appear to decrease differentially utilization of inpatient care for female children in rural Zambia

Forest school: what does it mean and offer to the senior leaders and practitioners who embrace it? :A reflexive thematic analysis

Forest School is a child-centred approach to learning that takes place in a natural setting such as woodland. It aims to support holistic development through regular sessions that involve play, supported risk taking and exploration of the environment. Current research suggests that participation in Forest School can have a wide range of physical and psychological benefits, in addition to fostering a lifelong connection with nature.This study aimed to explore what Forest School means and offers to the practitioners and school leaders who engage with the approach, to understand the social contextunderpinning engagement with Forest School and to explore how it is being used in the context of the National Curriculum. It presents the findings of six semi-structured interviews with school senior leaders and Forest School practitioners. Interviews explored what the term means to participants, their reasons for becoming involved with Forest School, personal experiences of the approach, reflections on where it fits in relation to the National Curriculum, and considerations of what the future might look like for Forest School.Participants reported diverse experiences of Forest School. Using reflexive thematicanalysis, data was organised into five core themes with eight subthemes. Core themes were as follows: a practical solution to multiple problems; seeing the impact on children and young people; making and maintaining connections with nature; challenging the educational status quo; and variation in Forest School. Findings are explored through an ecopsychological framework. Implications for educational psychology practice, the future of education, and further recommendations for research are also discussed

A survey of the coverage, use and application of ancient woodland indicator lists in the UK

This report presents the results of a survey into the current use of ancient woodland indicator species lists in the UK. The idea of using species particularly vascular plants as indicators of ancient woodlands can be dated back to the 1970s and the work of Peterken. Since then a wide number of lists of Ancient Woodland Indicators (AWIs)have been produced, some based on expert opinions, some utilising field surveys, others adapted from existing lists. Recently developed lists, e.g. the lists for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have been based on either robust reviews of existing lists, and/or expert opinion and/or field surveys and statistical analysis. Concerns however have been expressed regarding the use of lists and these concerns appear to be supported by the uncritical use of indicator species in recent planning inquiries, e.g. not recognising that indicators are indicators and considering them to be the key value of a woodland. A survey was undertaken of relevant individuals working in biological record centres, local authorities and key agencies across the UK. The survey sought to identify what lists of Ancient Woodland Indicators are currently in use, where possible to determine the methods used in developing these lists. The survey also sought to assess the awareness of ancient woodland indicator lists and review the ways in which these were used. A total of 419 questionnaires were sent out; a response rate of 11% was obtained. Follow up phone conversations were held with key individuals involved in developing ancient woodland indicator lists. Responses were received from all counties excluding: Buckinghamshire, Cheshire, Essex, Huntingdonshire, Middlesex, Northamptonshire, Staffordshire, Wiltshire and Worcestershire. In addition, the Lancashire respondent stated there was no AWI list for Lancashire. The key findings of the survey were: • There is a wide variety of lists of Ancient Woodland Indicators lists available covering most of the UK. • Most individuals using indicator lists are unaware of the methods used to produce the lists and therefore of their robustness. Some key stakeholders are unaware of the existence of indicator lists in their area. • Attitudes to ancient woodland indicator lists are variable, as is their use. • Few lists use species thresholds or weightings in determining whether a site is ancient, several lists are currently under review. • There are over 200 species listed on the various Ancient Woodland Indicators lists, few species are common to more than a quarter of the lists

Field surveys for ancient woodlands: Issues and Approaches

Field surveys of ancient woodlands and potential ancient woodlands can be undertaken for a variety of purposes, including: to help identify an Ancient Woodland, investigation into existing designated ancient woodlands, gathering information for site management and conservation decision making, assessing potential impacts of development, and making decisions on restoration etc. There is a variety of features in a woodland which can indicate whether it is an ancient woodland and can inform on the history and current ecological/historical value of the site. Many surveys of potential ancient woodlands have tended to focus on ancient woodland indicator species (AWIs), particularly Ancient Woodland Vascular Plants (AWVPs). Surveys which just focus on such indicators miss a lot of historical, archaeological and species information which can help confirm woodland continuity (i.e. that it is an ancient woodland) and/or identify features of historical and conservation value. There is a wide range of field survey techniques which can be used in ancient woodlands and a need to bring together the archaeological and ecological surveys in a single guide, hence this document. There are three broad types of feature to look for in an ancient woodland: • Ancient woodland vascular plant indicators; • Tree shape and form; and • Surface and buried archaeology. This report sets out survey methods for these features and advises on what to look for. Many important ecological and archaeological features can only be easily found at specific times of the year and surveying these features requires specific technical expertise and experience. Where surveys are undertaken outside the optimal period of time and/or are undertaken by individuals without the appropriate training and surveying expertise, the results should be treated with caution. Ideally several types of surveys of a woodland should be undertaken at different times of year to maximise the evidence collected and the robustness of this evidence. Where this is not possible, limitations in the surveys need to be stated and recognised in any analysis. In most cases field surveys should be combined with archive surveys (of site history, previous surveys etc.); this is particularly important when identifying ancient woodlands

The identification of ancient woodland: demonstrating antiquity and continuity - issues and approaches

This report presents an overview of the various types of evidence which can be used to determine whether a woodland site is likely to be designated as ‘ancient’ and discusses how these can be used as part of the decision making process. It has been commissioned by the Woodland Trust as part of their work promoting the value of ancient woodlands and getting the importance of such sites recognised through the planning process. An ancient woodland is defined as a woodland which has been continuously wooded from before 1600 AD. The evidence used to determine whether a site is ancient woodland is therefore: • evidence which indicates the continuity of woodland cover at a site from before 1600. • evidence which indicates that woodland was established post-1600 on a site. • evidence of a gap in woodland cover and the presence of other land uses, e.g. farmland, at that site since 1600. The robustness of the evidence sources varies, modern sources are often more robust and easier to verify but only demonstrate woodland cover in recent times. Care needs to be taken with all sources in their interpretation and use. Guidance has been provided regarding some of the potential limitations of the various types of evidence and recommendations have been made. General recommendations when seeking to identify/confirm an ancient woodland: • Ideally multiple sources of evidence should be obtained. • The reliability of the evidence used should be considered in the analysis. • A wide range of evidence sources should be consulted. • It needs to be recognised that absence of reference to a woodland on a map or in a document is not necessarily evidence of the absence of a woodland at that site. • In looking for evidence to determine whether a site is an ancient woodland it is as important to look for evidence that there was another land use at this site (i.e. evidence of a gap in woodland cover as shown by farmland on a map) as it is to look for evidence that there has been a continuity of woodland cover. • Field based evidence should normally be used to support map and archive evidence. However, ancient woodland plants can aid in ascribing antiquity where archive evidence alone is insufficient. • The evidence used to support the designation of a woodland as ancient or not needs to be clearly stated. As indicated previously, evaluation of the historical and other evidence for a site being an ancient woodland or not is a matter of judgement. Much of the evidence used is historic and not scientific, yet a rigorous scientific approach needs to be taken in determining the status of a possible ancient woodland site. It is recommended that in the near future further investigations into developing a more rigorous method for identifying and verifying the status of a site as an ancient woodland should be investigated. It is also recommended that the statutory agencies consider the development of detailed advice to consultants, planners and other workers involved in decisions relation to identify or potential ancient woodlands. It is hoped that this document may aid in this development

Investigation Of Dopamine Dynamics In Bdnf+/- Mice Using In Vivo Microdialysis And Electrochemical Analysis Of Purine And Monoamine Molecules Using A Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode

The goal of the first study was to determine if a reduction in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in female mice lead to a dysregulation in their dopaminergic system. Through a series of in vivo microdialysis and slice voltammetry experiments, we have discerned that female BDNF+/- mice are hyperdopaminergic similar to their male BDNF+/- counterparts. The in vivo microdialysis method zero-net flux highlighted that female BDNF+/- mice had increased extracellular dopamine (DA) levels, while stimulated regional release by high potassium potentiated DA release from vesicular mediated depolarization. Using the complementary technique of fast scan cyclic voltammetry, electrical stimulation evoked greater release in the female BDNF+/- mice, while uptake was not different from female wildtype mice. When the psychostimulant methamphetamine was administered, female BDNF+/- mice had potentiated DA release compared to their wildtype counterparts. Taken together, the DA release impairments in female mice appears to result in a hyperdopaminergic phenotype with no concomitant alterations in DA uptake. The aim of the second study was to characterize how lifelong reductions in BDNF affect the striatal dopaminergic system in aged BDNF+/- mice. As BDNF+/- mice aged from 3 to 18 months, their striatal dopamine dynamics, as measured by microdialysis and slice voltammetry, `normalized\u27 with respect to time. Aged BDNF+/- mice (18 months) had elevated levels of striatal DA metabolites and decreased phasic versus tonic release of DA with time. DA levels in BDNF+/- mice were age-dependent such that low BDNF levels in early adulthood, as previously reported, led to a hyperdopaminergic state while DA dynamics in the aged BDNF+/- mice `normalized\u27 with no overt alterations in either behavior or neurochemistry. In the third study we developed a method using a commercially available BDD working electrode for detecting neurotransmitters from two different families with large oxidation potential differences, DA and adenosine (Ado). Hydrodynamic voltammograms were constructed for DA and Ado, and the optimal potential for detection of DA and Ado was determined to be +740 mV and +1200 mV versus a palladium reference electrode, respectively. A working potential of +840 mV was chosen and the detection range achieved with the BDD electrode for DA and Ado was from low nanomolar to high millimolar levels. To determine the practical function of the BDD electrode, tissue content was analyzed for seven monoamines and two purine molecules, which were resolved in a single run in less than 28 min. Our results demonstrate that the BDD electrode is sensitive and robust enough to detect monoamine and purine molecules from frontal cortex and striatal mouse samples

Using Stock Prices as Ground Truth in Sentiment Analysis to Generate Profitable Trading Signals

The increasing availability of "big" (large volume) social media data has motivated a great deal of research in applying sentiment analysis to predict the movement of prices within financial markets. Previous work in this field investigates how the true sentiment of text (i.e. positive or negative opinions) can be used for financial predictions, based on the assumption that sentiments expressed online are representative of the true market sentiment. Here we consider the converse idea, that using the stock price as the ground-truth in the system may be a better indication of sentiment. Tweets are labelled as Buy or Sell dependent on whether the stock price discussed rose or fell over the following hour, and from this, stock-specific dictionaries are built for individual companies. A Bayesian classifier is used to generate stock predictions, which are input to an automated trading algorithm. Placing 468 trades over a 1 month period yields a return rate of 5.18%, which annualises to approximately 83% per annum. This approach performs significantly better than random chance and outperforms two baseline sentiment analysis methods tested.Comment: 8 pages, 6 figures. To be presented at IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence in Financial Engineering (CIFEr), Bengaluru, November 18-21, 201

Microstructural characterisation of TiAlTiAu and TiAlPdAu ohmic contacts to AlGaN/GaN

Ti/Al/Ti/Au and Ti/Al/Pd/Au contacts to AlGaN/GaN have been investigated to ascertain the effect of annealing temperature on the structural evolution of the contacts. Ti/Al/Ti/Au contacts become ohmic after rapid thermal annealing at 750°C or higher, corresponding to the formation of an interfacial TiN phase, with inclusions penetrating through the AlGaN layer observed after annealing at 950°C. The Pd layer is shown to be more efficient at inhibiting diffusion of Au to the interface than Ti. Ohmic behaviour was not seen with the Ti/Al/Pd/Au scheme. Either the presence of Au at the interface may improve ohmic behaviour, or the Ti:Al ratio is insufficient in this scheme