The gender pay gap in Malta

Malta stands out as one of the countries in the European Union with the lowest percentage of women working. This is as a result of the long-standing role women have tended to occupy in society, primarily as homemakers, whilst males have been considered as the main breadwinners. To a certain extent this is still the case in the majority of households today, particularly in the older generations. Younger couples are more likely to be both working, not only because of the need of the woman to reach her potential (particularly in the case of professionals) but also because the demands of today’s society and the expectations raised by modern life, require more than one salary to sustain the needs of a family. Recent years have seen an increase in the number of women in employment. However, it has also led to slow increases in the gender pay gap, where it stood at 7.8% in 2007 and rose to 11% by 2016. Malta is below the EU-28 average of 16.2%, but the fact that the gender pay gap is increasing implies that action needs to be taken to ensure that males and females have the same opportunities in the economy, and that women and men are treated equally in the labour market.peer-reviewe

University students : the divide between assessment methods and learning aspirations

This paper looks at students' learning aspirations and the type of knowledge they would like to gain during the time they invest on their tertiary education. Learning styles questionnaires have been developed to take into consideration the way different people learn, because not all students are the same: some do their utmost to learn from their courses; others cram before exams but do not appear interested during lectures; others only appear for their first and last lectures; and yet others just seem to patiently see the course through with no real effort put into it. If a lecturer really wants to ensure that his/her students are meeting their learning aspirations, can different assessment methods have diverse results. Which assessment methods best meets the learning aspiration of students? The aim of this paper is to evaluate the connection between different assessment methods and the students' learning aspirations. Results from the empirical analysis show that assignments provide students with the best opportunity for learning as it shows their aptitude in various ways: capacity to do research, to be innovative in their answers, integrate what they have learned during lectures and present work that goes beyond cut and paste material. Students appreciate feedback, while engagement in class can be used to improve learning results.peer-reviewe

Encouraging female entrepreneurship

This publication is supported by the European Union Programme for Employment and Social Solidarity -PROGRESS (2007-2013).Malta has the lowest female employment rate compared to the other 27 EU member states. However, the female labour market has been changing in the past years, where policies trying to attract more women in the market, as workers, employers or self-employed, have been put into place. According to the latest Population Census 2011 (NSO 2014), the 15+ female population totals 179,752, of which only 65,071 are considered as employed (including 141 women who are either unpaid family workers or members of producer’s cooperatives). A total of 4,444 females were seeking employment, while the remainder 110,237 were inactive. This means that only 36.2% of 15+ females were employed in 2011, with this increasing to 37.3% by the first quarter of 2014. The female employment rate (which considers the 15-64 age group) was 47.1% during Q1, 2014. Figure 1 shows the trend from 2004 to 2013 for Malta and EU28. This indicates that the increase is stronger in Malta, even if it remains relatively low when compared to the EU average, however, in the past few years it appears to be closing the gap since the EU average has remained somewhat stationary.peer-reviewe

EU accession criteria - the macroeconomic dimension : a case study of Malta

This paper is a case study of the Maltese macroeconomic situation, within the context of Malta's accession negotiations with the European Union. The Maastricht Convergence Criteria and the Stability and Growth Pact relate to the Economic and Monetary Union, but are considered as benchmarks for member states, whether these form part of the EMU or not. Within this framework this article assesses Malta's economic situation vis-a-vis convergence with the European Union, taking into account both nominal and real convergence. The Maastricht convergence criteria are used for nominal convergence while Okun's discomfort index and the EMU indicator devised by Gros and Thygesen are used to analyse real convergence.peer-reviewe

It’s raining passports! The economics of citizenship investment programmes

Small economies and particularly islands are often accused of finding creative means of sourcing income, at times bordering on legal yet dubious and debatable schemes. The most recent that has come under attack is the selling of citizenship or residency, with accusations of money laundering and tax evasion routes. Since such schemes attract the richer crust of society, the expectations are that such individuals have ulterior motives for requiring another country to reside in or be a citizen of. Can such schemes be viewed solely from such a negative perspective? Do they only entice persons with bad intentions or do such programmes also help in the economic development of these small countries? This paper looks at the schemes which are presently in place worldwide and then focuses on the recent scheme adopted by Malta. This programme has been met with significant resistance by the European Union, however, it needs to be acknowledged that other EU member states have similar citizenship/residency programmes. What role is the programme maintaining in the economic development of Malta? How successful has it been and what are the expectations for its future continuing process?peer-reviewe

Changes in the Development of Social Policy in a Small Island Economy: Malta

This paper analyses the development of social policies in Malta, with a particular focus on events which have impacted on the country’s growth and subsequently on its social security system and policies involving housing, health, education migration and employment. In recent decades, with costs to sustain an ever-growing web of social services becoming more demanding, governments have tried to encourage more self-help and to lessen the heavy dependence on aid structures within the system, pushed at times by recommendations from regional and international institutions. The smaller the economy the more open it is likely to be. Consequently, it is impacted relatively stronger by external events. A heavy reliance on trade, migration and foreign direct investment necessitates balancing the interplay between external and internal activities. These horizontal interdependencies together with the decolonisation process impacted on Malta’s development of social policies and its social security system. Vertical interdependencies had a lesser impact on social policy in the early stages but have in recent years influenced its gradual transformation from a welfare state to a welfare society. The analysis shows that Malta’s social policies aided its economic development strategy in that different social policies sought to provide an equitable society. However, strains and long-term deficits in public finances later showed up the cracks in the structures, which became overused, abused and too wide encompassing. Malta faces challenges which may impact the sustainability of some policies, such as health, while instigating further government intervention in others, such as social housing. A more holistic perspective of all social policies is called for

Factors affecting women entrepreneurs in Malta and Indonesia

There is a growing body of research on women entrepreneurs around the globe and studies on women entrepreneurs have witnessed a rapid growth over the past 30 years. There are many studies on either the environmental factors or on individuals’ characteristics that influence entrepreneurial attitudes from different socio-cultural profiles across the world. However, this is the only study which compares and contrasts women entrepreneurs in Malta and Indonesia, as two significantly different religious and cultural settings. Malta is predominantly Catholic while the majority in Indonesia are Muslim. Malta is an archipelago in the middle of the Mediterranean, 96 km south of the Italian island of Sicily. It has a total area of 316 km2 and the projected total population in 2030 will be around 511,000 people. Indonesia is an archipelago in Southeast Asia that lies across the Equator in the Indian and Pacific oceans, with a total area of 1,913,578 km2 and the projected total population in 2030 is expected to exceed 298 million. According to the World Bank, in 2017, Malta had a GDP per capita in PPP of $39,534 (ranking 30th) while Indonesia’s was$12,284 (ranking 95th). This means that Malta and Indonesia are both archipelagos but are very different in terms of size, geography, religion, culture and level of development. Within this context, the authors examined if the internal characteristics of women entrepreneurs and the external strategies that these women have at their disposal are different or similar in these two very diverse countries. . This paper thus presents the issues facing these two groups of women, from a comparative perspective. In-depth interviews were conducted with several women in Malta and in the West Java province in Indonesia in order to investigate the specific obstacles and support structures facing them, when they engage in an entrepreneurial process. The findings reveals that women in both countries face similar issues when starting a business such as: lack of finances, need for more encouraging support structures, need for more training programmes, need for strong networks, and both groups are confronted by a strong culture which favours men. These issues lead to challenges for both Maltese and Indonesian women. This study concludes with recommendations for entrepreneurial-responsive policy approaches that support women entrepreneurs to sustain them in their business activities, not only in the initial stages but also in their growth prospects.peer-reviewe

Changes in the development of social policy in a small island economy : Malta

This paper analyses the development of social policies in Malta, with a particular focus on events which have impacted on the country’s growth and subsequently on its social security system and policies involving housing, health, education migration and employment. In recent decades, with costs to sustain an ever-growing web of social services becoming more demanding, governments have tried to encourage more self-help and to lessen the heavy dependence on aid structures within the system, pushed at times by recommendations from regional and international institutions. The smaller the economy the more open it is likely to be. Consequently, it is impacted relatively stronger by external events. A heavy reliance on trade, migration and foreign direct investment necessitates balancing the interplay between external and internal activities. These horizontal interdependencies together with the decolonisation process impacted on Malta’s development of social policies and its social security system. Vertical interdependencies had a lesser impact on social policy in the early stages but have in recent years influenced its gradual transformation from a welfare state to a welfare society. The analysis shows that Malta’s social policies aided its economic development strategy in that different social policies sought to provide an equitable society. However, strains and long-term deficits in public finances later showed up the cracks in the structures, which became overused, abused and too wide encompassing. Malta faces challenges which may impact the sustainability of some policies, such as health, while instigating further government intervention in others, such as social housing. A more holistic perspective of all social policies is called for.peer-reviewe

Pay transparency and a cultural shift for real gender pay equality

This paper depicts a picture of the gender pay gap in Malta, which continued to increase to 12.2% in 2017. Recent years have seen an increase in the number of women in employment, but this has mainly been in the lower-end salary scales of the labour market and in part-time work, which have both partially contributed to a widening of the gender pay gap. Maltese women’s traditional role has been as a housemaker: even for those who were in the labour market, the expectations usually were and possibly continue to be, that it is the woman who leaves her job to take up the responsibilities of the family - children, the elderly and other relatives. Although legislation in terms of equal pay has been in place since 1976, there are many issues, which continue to impede real gender pay equality, including a patriarchal culture, strong male networks, family-friendly measures mainly taken up by females, career breaks, lack of transparency in pay structures, job segregation, and societal gender biases.peer-reviewe

The evolution of labour law in the new member states of the European Union : 1995-2005 - country studies on Cyprus and Malta

This Report traces the development of Labour Law and the implications for Industrial Relations, as well as social and employment policy more generally, in the two small Mediterranean countries of Cyprus and Malta during the period 1995–2005. This period was particularly important for the two countries as it coincided with their efforts for accession to the European Union (EU) and the process of harmonisation with the Acquis Communautaire. Since their independence in 1960 and 1964 respectively for Cyprus and Malta, successive Governments in each country – working with the social partners – had sought to steer a policy of social cohesion to underpin their development efforts. Whilst these strategies were successful in fostering a long period of economic growth and peaceful labour relations, a major outcome was the existence of relatively inflexible labour markets. Liberalisation and globalisation of international markets, coupled with the pressure exerted by the accession process, which required the implementation of the Acquis Communautaire necessitated a series of changes with far reaching implications in social and economic affairs. Naturally the framework of Labour Law – and labour practices thereof – came under increasing pressure to adapt and reform. The Executive Summary describes the main aims and objectives of the Report on the evolution of Labour Law in Cyprus and Malta in the period 1995-2005, and provides an outline of the component chapters. Specifically the Report is divided into three chapters. The first and second chapters consist of the individual Reports on Cyprus and Malta respectively. These constitute the main body of the Report and investigate the evolution of Labour Law in the two countries separately and the implications for Industrial Relations, employment and social policy. The third chapter provides a concluding overview of the two countries’ experiences and an evaluation of the state of implementation of the Acquis Communautaire in the fields examined.peer-reviewe