Seed composition in defoliated amaranth in the field.

<p>At mature amaranth seeds were collected and analyzed for A 100 seeds weight, B seed starch, C seed lipids and D seed protein. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 5). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for the Dunnett test.</p

Effect of defoliation on grain amaranth growth and yield in green house.

<p>Plants from different cultivars (<i>Tarasca, Dorada Amaranteca,n utrisol, Revancha</i> and <i>Gabriela</i> ) were grown equally in the green house and at panicle emergence were subjected to 2 defoliation treatments: control (0%) and 100% defoliation. Phenological parameters were measured at physiological maturity: A plant height; B shoot dry weight; C seed yield and D harvest index. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for the Dunnett test.</p

Seed composition in defoliated amaranth in green house.

<p>At mature amaranth seeds were collected and analyzed for A 100 seeds weight, B seed starch, C seed lipids and D seed protein. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for t Test.</p

Carbohydrate levels in the stem of defoliated and undamaged amaranth plants.

<p>Plants were harvested at 1, 30 and 110 days after treatment. A glucose, B fructose, C sucrose and D starch. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for Dunnett Test.</p

Effect of defoliation on amaranth's reproductive yield.

<p>A Panicle dry weight. B Seed yield at maturity, C Calculated panicle index as the ratio of seed weight and panicle weight. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for the Dunnett test.</p

Carbohydrate levels in the roots of defoliated and undamaged amaranth plants.

<p>Plants were harvested at 1, 30 and 110 days after treatment. A glucose, B fructose, C sucrose and D starch. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for Dunnett Test.</p

Effect of defoliation on grain amaranth growth and yield in field.

<p>Plants from different cultivars (<i>Amaranteca</i>, <i>Dorada</i>, <i>Nutrisol</i> and <i>Revancha</i>) were grown equally in the field and at panicle emergence were subjected to 3 defoliation treatments: control (0%), 50%, and 100% defoliation. Phenological parameters were measured at physiological maturity: A plant height; B shoot dry weight; C seed yield and D harvest index. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 5). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for the Dunnett test.</p

Sucrolytic and amylolytic activity in defoliated and shaded amaranth plants 1 day after treatment.

<p>Invertase activity in A leaf, B stem, C Root. D SUS activity in root and stem. E total amylase activity in stem and root. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for Dunnett Test.</p

Effect of defoliation on phenological parameters in grain amaranth grown in the greenhouse.

<p>45-day-old <i>A. cruentus</i> plants were subjected to 4 defoliation degrees: 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% Phenological parameters, A shoot; B root, C plant height, and D stem thickness, were measured at 1, 30 an110 d after treatment. Each bar represents the mean ± SE (n = 10). The asterisks over the bars represent statistical significance at * <i>p</i> = 0.05, ** <i>p</i> = 0.01, *** <i>p</i> = 0.001 for the Dunnett test.</p

Metabolic Profiling of Plant Extracts Using Direct-Injection Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry Allows for High-Throughput Phenotypic Characterization According to Genetic and Environmental Effects

In comparison to the exponential increase of genotyping methods, phenotyping strategies are lagging behind in agricultural sciences. Genetic improvement depends upon the abundance of quantitative phenotypic data and the statistical partitioning of variance into environmental, genetic, and random effects. A metabolic phenotyping strategy was adapted to increase sample throughput while saving reagents, reducing cost, and simplifying data analysis. The chemical profiles of stem extracts from maize plants grown under low nitrogen (LN) or control trial (CT) were analyzed using optimized protocols for direct-injection electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DIESI–MS). Specific ions significantly decreased or increased because of environmental (LN versus CT) or genotypic effects. Biochemical profiling with DIESI–MS had a superior cost–benefit compared to other standard analytical technologies (e.g., ultraviolet, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection) routinely used for plant breeding. The method can be successfully applied in maize, strawberry, coffee, and other crop species