Expression of systemic T cell activation markers in relation to infection with different helminth species.

<p>The frequencies of HLA-DR⁺CD38⁻ and total HLA-DR⁺ (B) are shown on the y-axis for CD4 (left panels) and CD8 T cells (right panels). The worm infection status is indicated on the x-axis stratified into worm negative individuals or those infected with TT (<i>Trichuris trichiura</i>), SH (<i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>), SM (<i>Schistosoma mansoni</i>), AL (<i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>) or HW (Hookworm). Statistical analysis was performed using Mann-Whitney test for comparing groups. Shown in (C) is a linear regression analysis between the frequency of HLA-DR⁺/CD38⁺ CD8 T cells and the worm egg counts (as measured by Kato-Katz method) within Trichuris (left panel) and <i>S. mansoni</i> (right panel) infected subjects.</p

WHIS study cohort.

<p>WHIS study cohort.</p

Expression of activation markers on CD4 and CD8 T cells in relation to chronic infection with different helminth species on HIV negative individuals.

<p>*P values for comparison between helminth infected and non-infected controls were calculated using the Mann-Whitney test.</p

Hookworm prevalence in the EMINI study sites (Mbeya region, Tanzania, 2008/2009).

<p>Color shading of Voronoi polygons drawn around each household indicates household prevalence, labels indicate site name and site prevalence.</p

Linear predictions of hookworm infection probabilities for population density, EVI, and latrine coverage.

<p>According to the site-specific models for Kyela and Itaka, adjusted for all variables shown in the site-specific models in <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002408#pntd-0002408-t003" target="_blank">Table 3</a>.</p

Characteristics of study participants and environmental conditions at their places of residence in Kyela and Itaka site.

<p>IQR = inter-quartile range; EPG = eggs per gram of feces; EVI = enhanced vegetation index; LST = land surface temperature; N = number of observations; SES = socio-economic status.</p>*<p>Median for continuous and proportion in percent for binary variables; IQR, minimum and maximum values are not given for binary variables.</p>†<p>According to Montresor 1998 <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002408#pntd.0002408-Montresor1" target="_blank">[21]</a>.</p

Multivariable associations of selected ecological and adjustment variables with hookworm infection status^*.

<p>CI = confidence interval; EVI = enhanced vegetation index; LST = land surface temperature; OR = odds ratio; SES = socio-economic status.</p>*<p><a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002408#s3" target="_blank">Results</a> of logistic regression adjusted for within-household clustering with robust variance estimates with each model containing only those variables for which data are shown in the Table.</p>†<p>Performed on pooled dataset combining all nine sites.</p>‡<p>Moderated model for Kyela and Itaka sites with site-interaction terms for environmental variables.</p>§<p>Missing stratum not shown.</p

Characteristics of the study participants and environmental conditions at their places of residence.

<p>EPG = eggs per gram of feces; EVI = enhanced vegetation index; IQR = inter-quartile range; LST = land surface temperature; N = number of observations; SES = socio-economic status.</p>*<p>Median for continuous and proportion in percent for binary variables; IQR, minimum and maximum values only shown for continuous variables.</p>†<p>According to Montresor, 1998 <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002408#pntd.0002408-Montresor1" target="_blank">[21]</a>.</p

Multivariable association of environmental and socio-demographic factors with <i>A. lumbricoides</i> infection using logistic regression with fractional polynomials (n = 6,363).

<p>β =  beta coefficient; OR  =  odds ratio; 95% CI  =  confidence interval; LST  =  land surface temperature; EVI  =  enhanced vegetation index; SES  =  socio economic score, AIC  =  Akaike information criterion; BIC  =  Bayesian information criterion.</p>a)<p>Adjusted for household clustering using Huber/White/Sandwich variance estimates and for study sites.</p>b)<p>Fractional polynomial transformation with two degrees and powers p = 3: β₁x^p+β₂x^p*ln x.</p>c)<p>Fractional polynomial transformation with two degrees and powers p = −0.5: β₁x^p+β₂x^p*ln x.</p>d)<p>Percentage of households with a latrine within one kilometer around the participant's household.</p

Lowess smoothed plot of hookworm prevalence over age in EMINI participants (Mbeya region, Tanzania 2008/2009).

<p>Prevalence rises sharply from birth to adolescence and reaches a plateau in early adulthood after which it stays relatively stable.</p