The evolution of teachers’ language awareness

The paper focuses on the development of teacher thinking, specifically L2 teachers’ subject-matter cognitions, i.e. their Teacher Language Awareness (TLA) (see e.g. Andrews 2001, 2003). The study examines the evolving TLA, as it relates to grammar, of three teachers, each a graduate with more than 10 years’ experience of teaching English in Hong Kong secondary schools. All three teachers took part in a previous TLA study conducted in 1996–97 (see Andrews, 1999a), when they were in their early years of teaching and had received no professional training. In the present study, these three teachers’ TLA and cognitions about grammar were investigated once more (in 2004). The aim of this follow-up study was to tell the story of each teacher’s evolving TLA and grammar-related cognitions. In both phases of the research a mixed methods approach was adopted. Data from the two studies suggested that the teachers’ TLA and grammar- related cognitions had altered very little. Their underlying beliefs about grammar pedagogy and the role of explicit grammar teaching, and their knowledge about grammar (as measured by a test of LA) seemed largely unchanged. The main difference between the three teachers was in their interaction with the context in which they worked.published_or_final_versio

Why Do L2 Teachers Need to 'Know About Language'? Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Input for Learning

This paper sets out to examine the importance in the instructed-learning setting of the L2 teacher's 'knowledge about language' (her metalinguistic awareness, or TMA). Three questions are examined in relation to TMA: (1) Do L2 teachers need to 'know about language?' (2) If so, why, and in what ways? and (3) What impact does the level/nature of a teacher's metalinguistic awareness have on the input which is made available for learning? The paper first of all adopts a theoretical stance in relation to these three questions. A model of TMA is proposed where it is seen as performing a crucial role in the language teaching/language learning process because of its potential impact upon input for learning. The paper then examines empirical evidence relating to the three questions and to the validity of the TMA construct by reporting on data gathered from classroom observation and semi-structured interviews with three L2 teachers working in secondary schools in Hong Kong.published_or_final_versio

Teacher Language Awareness and the Professional Knowledge Base of the L2 Teacher

This paper provides an introduction to teacher language awareness (TLA) and a personal reconceptualisation of the relationship between TLA and other dimensions of teacher knowledge, revisiting issues discussed in Andrews (2001). In the first part of the paper, knowledge of subject matter is identified as the core of TLA. Given the increased recognition in education that subject-matter knowledge is a key element of teacher professionalism, it is argued that TLA should be seen as equally important for the teacher of language subjects. The middle part of the paper outlines a personal view of the nature and scope of TLA, focusing particularly on the link between knowledge about language (subject-matter knowledge) and knowledge of language (language proficiency), on the metacognitive nature of TLA, and on TLA as encompassing an awareness of language from the learner perspective. The latter part of the paper explores the link between TLA and the professional knowledge of the L2 teacher, drawing on two recent models of teacher knowledge (Tsui, 2003; Turner-Bisset, 2001), and examines the impact of TLA on pedagogical practice. Finally, the paper argues that TLA research and discussion could enhance our understanding of 'what makes our teaching language teaching' (Freeman & Johnson, 1998: 413).published_or_final_versio

'All These Like Little Name Things': A Comparative Study of Language Teachers' Explicit Knowledge of Grammar and Grammatical Terminology

An in-depth investigation is currently being conducted into the metalinguistic awareness of a group of practising L2 teachers, all non-native speakers teaching English in Hong Kong secondary schools. The investigation focuses on teacher metalinguistic awareness (TMA) as it relates to grammar. As part of this in-depth study, a test was administered in order to explore the declarative dimension of TMA: the teacher's explicit knowledge of grammar and grammatical terminology. The test was based largely on Alderson et al. (1996), which in turn draws upon Bloor (1986). The present paper reports on the test performance of these serving teachers as an indication of the level and nature of their explicit knowledge of grammar and grammatical terminology. It also compares their performance with that of two groups of prospective teachers of EFL/ESL: one group of native-speakers and the other of non-native speakers. Comparison with the former helps to shed light on the native/non-native issue (see, for example, Medgyes, 1994) as it relates to explicit knowledge of grammar, while comparison with the latter offers some indication of the effects of post-secondary education and teaching experience upon such knowledge.published_or_final_versio

The language awareness of the L2 teacher: its impact upon pedagogical practice

The paper sets out to examine the ways in which a teacher's language awareness affects their pedagogical practice. It begins by considering the relationship between teacher language awareness and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), arguing that there is something unique about the PCK of the L2 teacher, because the content and medium of L2 instruction are so closely interrelated. A model is proposed, in which the L2 teacher's language awareness (TLA) is seen as a sub-component of PCK, forming a bridge between knowledge of subject matter and communicative language ability. The paper then considers the role in the instructed learning setting of the L2 teacher's TLA, with specific reference to grammar. Following Andrews 1999a, the impact of TLA is examined through its interaction with the three main sources of language input for learners: materials, other learners, and the teacher. The paper then offers an overview of the effects of TLA on pedagogical practice, and identifies various potential influences on the operation of any teacher's metalinguistic awareness. The paper concludes with discussion and illustration of one of these potentially influential factors, the teacher's engagement with content-related issues, drawing on data from an in-depth study of 17 L2 teachers (Andrews, 1999b).published_or_final_versio

Question types, responsiveness and self-contradictions when prosecutors and defense attorneys question alleged victims of child sexual abuse

We examined 120 trial transcripts of 6- to 12-year-old children testifying to sexual abuse. Age and attorney role were analyzed in relation to question types, children’s responsiveness, and self-contradiction frequency. A total of 48,716 question-response pairs were identified. Attorneys used more closed-ended than open-ended prompts. Prosecutors used more invitations (3% vs. 0%), directives and optionposing prompts than defence attorneys, who used more suggestive prompts than prosecutors. Children were more unresponsive to defence attorneys than to prosecutors. Self-contradictions were identified in 95% of the cases. Defence attorneys elicited more self-contradictions than prosecutors, but nearly all prosecutors (86%) elicited at least one self-contradiction. Suggestive questions elicited more selfcontradictions than any other prompt type. There were no associations with age. These findings suggest that neither prosecutors nor defence attorneys question children in developmentally appropriate ways.This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Wiley via http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.310

Metalinguistic awareness and teacher explanation

In Hong Kong in the past five years, there has been a marked increase of interest in the language awareness of teachers (their ‘metalinguistic awareness’). This interest has been stimulated partly by a concern about declining standards of student achievement in both Chinese and English. Dissatisfaction with learners’ standards of English is linked to officially expressed concern about the quality of teachers of English, many of whom are neither subject-trained nor professionally trained. The present study is part of on-going research into the metalinguistic awareness of Hong Kong secondary school teachers of English. One observable behaviour most obviously exemplifying the metalinguistic awareness of L2 teachers is explaining grammar. The aim of this particular study was to explore the relationship between a teacher’s metalinguistic awareness and her ability to explain a grammar point: how might the latter be affected by the former, and what might the latter reveal about the former? A number of teachers with different backgrounds and experience were asked to role-play the explanation of a grammar point on two separate occasions. The explanations were video-taped, transcribed and analysed. The paper reports the results of the analysis of four samples of performance.published_or_final_versio

The effect of social preference on academic diligence in adolescence

In the current study, we were interested in whether adolescents show a preference for social stimuli compared with non-social stimuli in the context of academic diligence, that is, the ability to expend effort on tedious tasks that have long-term benefits. Forty-five female adolescents (aged 11–17) and 46 female adults (aged 23–33) carried out an adapted version of the Academic Diligence Task (ADT). We created two variations of the ADT: a social ADT and non-social ADT. Individuals were required to freely split their time between an easy, boring arithmetic task and looking at a show-reel of photographs of people (in the social ADT) or landscapes (in the non-social ADT). Individuals also provided enjoyment ratings for both the arithmetic task and the set of photographs they viewed. Adolescents reported enjoying the social photographs significantly more than the non-social photographs, with the converse being true for adults. There was no significant difference in the time spent looking at the social photographs between the adolescents and adults. However, adults spent significantly more time than adolescents looking at the non-social photographs, suggesting that adolescents were less motivated to look at the non-social stimuli. Further, the correlation between self-reported enjoyment of the pictures and choice behaviour in the ADT was stronger for adults than for adolescents in the non-social condition, revealing a greater discrepancy between self-reported enjoyment and ADT choice behaviour for adolescents. Our results are discussed within the context of the development of social cognition and introspective awareness between adolescence and adulthood

A Creative Writing Case Study of Gender-Based Violence in Coach Education: Stacey’s Story

Creative nonfiction writing is the literary technique employed in this article to explore insights and assist our understanding of an “alleged” sexual assault in a sport coach education environment. Creative nonfiction employs various narrative tools: characters, setting, figurative language, sequences of events, plot, sub-plot, and dialogue, designed to render the sensitive and controversial elements of sexual assault significant. Readers are, therefore, invited to engage with Stacey’s Story and reflect on the actions of both the perpetrator(s) and the victim. While there are risks associated with the sharing of stories, especially those which are considered dangerous, it is envisaged that Stacey’s Story will be viewed as an opportunity to develop more critical responses and advance our understanding of gender-based violence in sport

Comparison of embedded and added motor imagery training in patients after stroke: Results of a randomised controlled pilot trial

Copyright @ 2012 Schuster et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Background: Motor imagery (MI) when combined with physiotherapy can offer functional benefits after stroke. Two MI integration strategies exist: added and embedded MI. Both approaches were compared when learning a complex motor task (MT): ‘Going down, laying on the floor, and getting up again’. Methods: Outpatients after first stroke participated in a single-blinded, randomised controlled trial with MI embedded into physiotherapy (EG1), MI added to physiotherapy (EG2), and a control group (CG). All groups participated in six physiotherapy sessions. Primary study outcome was time (sec) to perform the motor task at pre and post-intervention. Secondary outcomes: level of help needed, stages of MT-completion, independence, balance, fear of falling (FOF), MI ability. Data were collected four times: twice during one week baseline phase (BL, T0), following the two week intervention (T1), after a two week follow-up (FU). Analysis of variance was performed. Results: Thirty nine outpatients were included (12 females, age: 63.4 ± 10 years; time since stroke: 3.5 ± 2 years; 29 with an ischemic event). All were able to complete the motor task using the standardised 7-step procedure and reduced FOF at T0, T1, and FU. Times to perform the MT at baseline were 44.2 ± 22s, 64.6 ± 50s, and 118.3 ± 93s for EG1 (N = 13), EG2 (N = 12), and CG (N = 14). All groups showed significant improvement in time to complete the MT (p < 0.001) and degree of help needed to perform the task: minimal assistance to supervision (CG) and independent performance (EG1+2). No between group differences were found. Only EG1 demonstrated changes in MI ability over time with the visual indicator increasing from T0 to T1 and decreasing from T1 to FU. The kinaesthetic indicator increased from T1 to FU. Patients indicated to value the MI training and continued using MI for other difficult-to-perform tasks. Conclusions: Embedded or added MI training combined with physiotherapy seem to be feasible and benefi-cial to learn the MT with emphasis on getting up independently. Based on their baseline level CG had the highest potential to improve outcomes. A patient study with 35 patients per group could give a conclusive answer of a superior MI integration strategy.The research project was partially funded by the Gottfried und Julia Bangerter-Rhyner Foundation