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    Teamworking under the microscope : employee behavior, job design and ideal compensation system

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    Nowadays teams are used in almost any organization as they are able to respond adequately to the changes from the business environment. Thus, the focus of this thesis is to analyse team working thoroughly by looking at individual team members satisfaction, behaviour and career prospects. Only by investigating first the individuals we can get a proper picture of how the team is functioning as the sum of individual efforts, commitment and relationships among group members shape the actual team. Which are the compensation schemes preferred by the employees? Are there any other types of non-monetary rewards that contribute to higher satisfaction or helping behaviour? And does it really payoff to be part of a team in terms of increase cooperation among group members and potential promotions? These are the research questions that I plan to answer in my dissertation. In the specific case of human resource management it is proper for companies to adapt their compensation systems to their team-based structures (Zobal, 1998; Shaw et al., 2001). However, there are few studies about the effect of the new compensation design on employee satisfaction and helping behaviour. In line with equity theory and theory of cooperation it is important to investigate which other variables that managers can control influence team members satisfaction and cooperation. However, most prior research has studied the relationship between perceived fairness with pay and job satisfaction (Donovan, Drasgow & Munson, 1998; Masterson et al. 2000; Haar & Spell, 2009; Casuneanu, 2010) but little is known about the specific effects of different types of compensation applied on team member satisfaction and citizenship behaviour. Another variable considered to influence satisfaction and other positive work-related attitudes (i.e.cooperation), is autonomy, regarded by the literature as a non-monetary reward (Lawler, 1971). Nevertheless, previous research was either theoretical (Predergast, 2002; Raith, 2008) or considered autonomy at individual level (Karasek, 1979; Ortega, 2009). Given that there are few studies that take into account the influence of autonomy at team level the focus of this thesis is to study the effects of both individual and team-based autonomy on employee behaviour, satisfaction and career prospects. The contribution of this dissertation resides also in the introduction of both types of autonomy which are explored in detail and expected to work like a buffer that compensates for potential injustices of the reward system. While team working has proved to have advantages for productivity (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1989; Hamilton, Nickerson & Owan, 2003), cooperation (Miller and Hamblin; 1963; Van der Vegt et al., 2003; Bamberger & Levi, 2009) and knowledge sharing (Siemsen, Balasubramanian & Roth, 2007) its effects on career advancement prospects received little attention. Furthermore and in line with employee learning theory and previous career development literature, the connection between productivity and promotion has been studied but the complex set of variables (at individual and group level) that affects advancement beyond this needs further investigation. The data that I use in this thesis comes from the fourth European Working Conditions Survey conducted in 2005 by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions1. This survey provides an analysis of working conditions in the 27 countries of the European Union, in the two candidate countries (Turkey and Croatia), in Switzerland and Norway. In total, nearly 30.000 individual workers were interviewed in face-to-face interviews in their own homes between September and November of 2005, but I kept mainly the observations referring to employees working in a team. The focus of this thesis is the team member given that it is essential to understand individual behavior and expectations in order to understand work groups. Once inside the team, individual satisfaction, cooperation and career opportunities have to be carefully looked at, as through a microscope, in order to analyze the underlying factors which influence them. I attempt to address this central theme through three essays, each one exploring a different research question and using the same dataset described above. Chapter 1 entitled The Antecedents of Satisfaction with Pay in Teams: Do Performance-based Compensation and Autonomy Keep Team-members Satisfied? aims to investigate the effects performance-based compensation and autonomy on satisfaction with pay in the context of team working. Given that previous literature suggests that organizations using team working should also change their compensation system accordingly, I aim at developing a complex perspective that considers the influence of different monetary and non-monetary rewards on satisfaction with pay. Drawing from agency theory, equity theory and theory of cooperation I predict that both piece rates and team-based rewards are associated with higher pay satisfaction. Moreover, I claim that autonomy in the form of both individual and team-based contribute to increased satisfaction with pay. Using a cross-sectional dataset of randomly selected European employees who are asked about specific working and living conditions, results confirm that both productivity based rewards and autonomy are important tools when it comes to determining employee satisfaction. Managers should know when to introduce rewards based only on individual merits so as to keep their workers motivated and when to give use autonomy as a buffer to compensate for potential fairness lacks in the payment system. In Chapter 2 entitled The Determinants of Helping Behavior in Teams I address the antecedents of helping behaviour in teams by looking at performance based compensation and autonomy. Given that previous literature has mainly examined each determinant separately, I aim at developing a complex perspective that considers their effect simultaneously. Using agency theory, social exchange theory and the theory of cooperation, I predict that piece rates and individual productivity payments decrease cooperation while and empowerment, at both individual and team level, leads to more helping behavior. This paper measures helping behaviour through the degree of assistance received by a team-member from other colleagues. We assume that workers receive help-from somebody else who may be called the good Samaritan- in two cases: first, when somebody else has something to gain if he or she offers help (for instance higher common reward or the perspective of receiving help himself) and second, when somebody else wants to help only because he or she can, this person being the Good Samaritan. I claim that a potential explanation that goes beyond compensation and autonomy refers to altruistic behaviour. Results yield support for the majority of the hypotheses confirming that managers could control their employees through either the compensation system or through autonomy in order to determine them to assist others. Practical implications are also identified and new directions for further research are proposed. In Chapter 3 entitled Team Participation and Career Advancement I study the relationship between team affiliation and career advancement. Given that previous literature has mainly examined the connection between productivity and promotion, it is interesting to analyze the complex set of variables that affect career prospects beyond this. Drawing from employee learning and career development literature I aim at investigating both the antecedents and consequences of team affiliation. I claim that both the level of education and tenure are associated with team participation while inside the group, together with individual and team-based autonomy, they lead to high career advancement prospects. The findings suggest that managers may prefer to select in teams employees who are highly educated or have a large history and experience with the organization and once inside the team, team affiliation, individual autonomy, higher education and team discretion in the form of team freedom over the choice of the group leader contribute to high career prospects as expected. The implication regarding attaining further education is in line with findings from Arrow (1972), Spilerman & Lunde (1991) and Chao & Ngai (2001) who consider education credential as an important signal about employee level of competenceEl foco de esta tesis es analizar el trabajo en equipo mirando a los miembros individuales del grupo la satisfacci贸n, el comportamiento y perspectivas de carrera. S贸lo mediante la investigaci贸n de los individuos podemos tener una idea correcta de c贸mo el equipo est谩 funcionando siendo de hecho la suma de los esfuerzos individuales, el compromiso y las relaciones entre los miembros del equipo. 驴Cu谩les son los planes de compensaci贸n preferidos por los empleados? 驴Hay alg煤n otro tipo de recompensas no monetarias que contribuyan a una mayor satisfacci贸n o al comportamiento de ayuda entre los miembros del grupo? Y realmente recompensa formar parte de un equipo en t茅rminos de incrementar la cooperaci贸n entre los miembros del grupo y promociones potenciales? Estas son las preguntas de investigaci贸n que tengo la intenci贸n de responder en mi tesis. Los datos que utilizo en esta tesis vienen de la cuarta Encuesta europea sobre las condiciones de trabajo realizada en 2005 por la Fundaci贸n Europea para la Mejora de Vida y de Trabajo. Este estudio ofrece un an谩lisis de las condiciones de trabajo en los 27 pa铆ses de la Uni贸n Europea, en los dos pa铆ses candidatos (Turqu铆a y Croacia), en Suiza y Noruega. En total, casi 30.000 trabajadores individuales fueron entrevistados en las entrevistas cara a cara en sus propias casas entre septiembre y noviembre de 2005, pero analice principalmente las observaciones que se refieren a los empleados que trabajan en equipo. El objetivo de esta tesis es estudiar el miembro del equipo ya que es esencial para comprender el comportamiento individual y las expectativas a fin de entender los grupos de trabajo. Una vez dentro del equipo, la satisfacci贸n individual, la cooperaci贸n y las oportunidades profesionales tienen que ser cuidadosamente examinados, como a trav茅s de un microscopio, con el fin de analizar los factores subyacentes que los influyen. Abordare este tema central a trav茅s de tres ensayos, cada uno explorando un tema de investigaci贸n diferente y utilizando el mismo conjunto de datos descrito anteriormente. Cap铆tulo 1 tiene como objetivo investigar los efectos de la compensaci贸n y la autonom铆a en la satisfacci贸n individual con goce de sueldo en el contexto del trabajo en equipo. Teniendo en cuenta que la literatura previa sugiere que las organizaciones con trabajo en equipo tambi茅n deben cambiar su sistema de compensaci贸n en consecuencia, quiero desarrollar una perspectiva compleja que tenga en cuenta la influencia de los diferentes premios monetarios y no monetarios en la satisfacci贸n con goce de sueldo. Partiendo de la teor铆a de la agencia, la teor铆a de la equidad y la teor铆a de la cooperaci贸n mi predicci贸n es que tanto a destajo y las recompensas basadas en el trabajo en equipo est谩n asociados con la satisfacci贸n m谩s alta con el pago. Por otra parte, tambi茅n afirmo que la autonom铆a tanto en la forma individual como en equipo contribuye a una mayor satisfacci贸n con goce de sueldo. Los resultados, utilizando la base de datos descrita anteriormente, confirman que tanto la compensaci贸n basada en la productividad y como la autonom铆a son herramientas importantes a la hora de determinar la satisfacci贸n del empleado. Los gerentes deben saber cu谩ndo hay que introducir recompensas basadas 煤nicamente en los m茅ritos individuales con el fin de mantener a sus trabajadores motivados y cu谩ndo usar la autonom铆a como un amortiguador para compensar posibles carencias en la equidad del sistema de pago. En el cap铆tulo 2 estoy analizando los antecedentes de la ayuda en equipos mediante la compensaci贸n basada en el rendimiento y la autonom铆a. Dado que estudios anteriores han examinado cada determinante sobre todo por separado, este ensayo apunta a desarrollar una perspectiva compleja que tenga en cuenta el efecto de las dos al mismo tiempo. Partiendo de la teor铆a de la agencia, la teor铆a del intercambio social y la teor铆a de la cooperaci贸n, predigo que los pagos individuales en funci贸n de la productividad disminuyen la cooperaci贸n, mientras que el empoderamiento, tanto a nivel individual como al de equipo, lleva a un comportamiento m谩s ayuda. Este art铆culo mide el comportamiento de ayuda a trav茅s del grado de ayuda recibida por un miembro del equipo de otros colegas. Asumimos que los trabajadores reciban ayuda de otra persona que pueda ser llamada el Buen Samaritano, en dos casos: primero, cuando alguien tiene algo que ganar si 茅l o ella ofrece ayuda (por ejemplo, mayor recompensa com煤n o la perspectiva de recibir ayuda de otros) y en segundo lugar, cuando alguien quiere ayudar s贸lo porque 茅l o ella puede, esta persona siendo altruista, o el Buen Samaritano. Afirmo que una posible explicaci贸n que va m谩s all谩 de la compensaci贸n y la autonom铆a se refiere a la conducta altruista. Los resultados apoyan la mayor铆a de las hip贸tesis confirmando que los gerentes podr铆an controlar a sus empleados ya sea a trav茅s del sistema de compensaci贸n o a trav茅s de la autonom铆a para determinarlos ayudar a otros. Las implicaciones pr谩cticas est谩n tambi茅n identificadas y nuevas direcciones para futuras investigaciones propuestas. En el tercer ensayo estudio la relaci贸n entre la participaci贸n en el equipo y las promociones. Dado que en estudios anteriores se ha examinado sobre todo la relaci贸n entre la productividad y la promoci贸n, es interesante analizar el complejo conjunto de variables que afectan las perspectivas de carrera m谩s all谩 de este. Utilizando la teor铆a de aprendizaje de los empleados y la literatura de desarrollo profesional el objetivo de este 15 cap铆tulo es investigar tanto los antecedentes como las consecuencias de la afiliaci贸n a un equipo. Sostengo que tanto el nivel de la educaci贸n y la tenencia se asocian con la participaci贸n del equipo, mientras que en el interior del grupo, junto con autonom铆a individuales y al nivel de equipo, conducen a altas perspectivas de promoci贸n. Los resultados sugieren que los directivos prefieren seleccionar en los equipos a los empleados que tienen una educaci贸n alta o tienen una larga historia y experiencia en la organizaci贸n y una vez dentro del grupo, ser parte de un equipo, tener autonom铆a individual, educaci贸n superior y gozando de autonom铆a a nivel de equipo -en forma de la libertad la elecci贸n del l铆der del grupo- conducen a altas perspectivas en la carrera, tal como se esperaba. La implicaci贸n con respecto a lograr un nivel alto de educaci贸n est谩 en consonancia con las conclusiones de Arrow (1972), Spilerman y Lunde (1991) y Chao y Ngai (2001) quienes consideran la educaci贸n una importante se帽al sobre el nivel de competencia de los empleado

    The antecedents of satisfaction with pay in teams: do performance-based compensation and autonomy keep team-members satisfied?

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    This paper aims to investigate the effects performance-based compensation and autonomy on satisfaction with pay in the context of team working. I develop a complex perspective that considers the influence of different monetary and non-monetary rewards on satisfaction with pay. Drawing from the agency theory, equity theory and theory of cooperation I predict that both piece rates and team-based rewards are associated with higher pay satisfaction. Moreover, I claim that both individual and team-based autonomy contribute to increased satisfaction with pay. Using a cross-sectional dataset of randomly selected European employees who are asked about specific working and living conditions, results confirm that both productivity-based rewards and autonomy are important for employee satisfaction. Managers should know when to introduce rewards based only on individual merits and when to give to use autonomy as a buffer to compensate for the potential lack of fairness in the payment system
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