Re-visiting the One-Time Pad

In 1949, Shannon proved the perfect secrecy of the Vernam cryptographic system,also popularly known as the One-Time Pad (OTP). Since then, it has been believed that the perfectly random and uncompressible OTP which is transmitted needs to have a length equal to the message length for this result to be true. In this paper, we prove that the length of the transmitted OTP which actually contains useful information need not be compromised and could be less than the message length without sacrificing perfect secrecy. We also provide a new interpretation for the OTP encryption by treating the message bits as making True/False statements about the pad, which we define as a private-object. We introduce the paradigm of private-object cryptography where messages are transmitted by verifying statements about a secret-object. We conclude by suggesting the use of Formal Axiomatic Systems for investing N bits of secret.Comment: 13 pages, 3 figures, submitted for publication to IndoCrypt 2005 conferenc

Health economics of targeted intraoperative radiotherapy (TARGIT-IORT) for early breast cancer: a cost-effectiveness analysis in the United Kingdom

Objective: The clinical effectiveness of targeted intraoperative radiotherapy (TARGIT-IORT) has been confirmed in the randomised TARGIT-A (targeted intraoperative radiotherapy-alone) trial to be similar to a several weeks’ course of whole-breast external-beam radiation therapy (EBRT) in patients with early breast cancer. This study aims to determine the cost effectiveness of TARGIT-IORT to inform policy decisions about its wider implementation. Setting TARGIT-A randomised clinical trial (ISRCTN34086741) which compared TARGIT with traditional EBRT and found similar breast cancer control, particularly when TARGIT was given simultaneously with lumpectomy. Methods: Cost-utility analysis using decision analytic modelling by a Markov model. A cost-effectiveness Markov model was developed using TreeAge Pro V.2015. The decision analytic model compared two strategies of radiotherapy for breast cancer in a hypothetical cohort of patients with early breast cancer based on the published health state transition probability data from the TARGIT-A trial. Analysis was performed for UK setting and National Health Service (NHS) healthcare payer’s perspective using NHS cost data and treatment outcomes were simulated for both strategies for a time horizon of 10 years. Model health state utilities were drawn from the published literature. Future costs and effects were discounted at the rate of 3.5%. To address uncertainty, one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. Main outcome measures: Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Results: In the base case analysis, TARGIT-IORT was a highly cost-effective strategy yielding health gain at a lower cost than its comparator EBRT. Discounted TARGITIORT and EBRT costs for the time horizon of 10 years were £12 455 and £13 280, respectively. TARGIT-IORT gained 0.18 incremental QALY as the discounted QALYs gained by TARGIT-IORT were 8.15 and by EBRT were 7.97 showing TARGIT-IORT as a dominant strategy over EBRT. Model outputs were robust to one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Conclusions: TARGIT-IORT is a dominant strategy over EBRT, being less costly and producing higher QALY gain

Matrix Representation of Iterative Approximate Byzantine Consensus in Directed Graphs

This paper presents a proof of correctness of an iterative approximate Byzantine consensus (IABC) algorithm for directed graphs. The iterative algorithm allows fault- free nodes to reach approximate conensus despite the presence of up to f Byzantine faults. Necessary conditions on the underlying network graph for the existence of a correct IABC algorithm were shown in our recent work [15, 16]. [15] also analyzed a specific IABC algorithm and showed that it performs correctly in any network graph that satisfies the necessary condition, proving that the necessary condition is also sufficient. In this paper, we present an alternate proof of correctness of the IABC algorithm, using a familiar technique based on transition matrices [9, 3, 17, 19]. The key contribution of this paper is to exploit the following observation: for a given evolution of the state vector corresponding to the state of the fault-free nodes, many alternate state transition matrices may be chosen to model that evolution cor- rectly. For a given state evolution, we identify one approach to suitably "design" the transition matrices so that the standard tools for proving convergence can be applied to the Byzantine fault-tolerant algorithm as well. In particular, the transition matrix for each iteration is designed such that each row of the matrix contains a large enough number of elements that are bounded away from 0

New Mean Graphs

A graph that admits a Smarandachely super mean m-labeling is called a Smarandachely super m-mean graph, particularly, a mean graph if m = 2. In this paper, some new families of mean graphs are investigated. We prove that the graph obtained by two new operations called mutual duplication of a pair of vertices each from each copy of cycle Cn as well as mutual duplication of a pair of edges each from each copy of cycle Cn admits mean labeling

Stochastic Stability Analysis of Discrete Time System Using Lyapunov Measure

In this paper, we study the stability problem of a stochastic, nonlinear, discrete-time system. We introduce a linear transfer operator-based Lyapunov measure as a new tool for stability verification of stochastic systems. Weaker set-theoretic notion of almost everywhere stochastic stability is introduced and verified, using Lyapunov measure-based stochastic stability theorems. Furthermore, connection between Lyapunov functions, a popular tool for stochastic stability verification, and Lyapunov measures is established. Using the duality property between the linear transfer Perron-Frobenius and Koopman operators, we show the Lyapunov measure and Lyapunov function used for the verification of stochastic stability are dual to each other. Set-oriented numerical methods are proposed for the finite dimensional approximation of the Perron-Frobenius operator; hence, Lyapunov measure is proposed. Stability results in finite dimensional approximation space are also presented. Finite dimensional approximation is shown to introduce further weaker notion of stability referred to as coarse stochastic stability. The results in this paper extend our earlier work on the use of Lyapunov measures for almost everywhere stability verification of deterministic dynamical systems ("Lyapunov Measure for Almost Everywhere Stability", {\it IEEE Trans. on Automatic Control}, Vol. 53, No. 1, Feb. 2008).Comment: Proceedings of American Control Conference, Chicago IL, 201