EU-Urheberrechtsreform: Eine Problembeschreibung aus Sicht der Bibliotheken

Thema dieses Positionspapiers, das Herrn EU Kommissar Günther Oettinger von DBV und Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin anlässlich eines Gesprächs am 20.6.2016 vorgelegt wurde, ist die in der Mitteilung der Kommission „Schritte zu einem modernen, europäischeren Urheberrecht“ vom 9.12.2015 skizzierte Urheberrechtsreform. Das Positionspapier bezieht sich dabei insbesondere auf Regelungen, die Dienstleistungen von Bibliotheken betreffen.

Recent advances in pulse oximetry

Conventional pulse oximetry uses two wavelengths of light (red and infrared) transmitted through a finger and a photodetector to analyze arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation and pulse rate. Recent advances in pulse oximetry include: extended analysis of the photo plethysmographic waveform; use of multiple wavelengths of light to quantify methemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin and total hemoglobin content in blood; and use of electronic processes to improve pulse oximeter signal processing during conditions of low signal-to-noise ratio. These advances have opened new clinical applications for pulse oximeters that will have an impact on patient monitoring and management

Nineteenth-Century Tides in the Gulf of Maine and Implications for Secular Trends

Since the early twentieth century, the amplitudes of tidal constituents in the Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy display clear secular trends that are among the largest anywhere observed for a regional body of water. The M2 amplitude at Eastport, Maine, increased at a rate of 14.1 ± 1.2 cm per century until it temporarily dropped during 1980–1990, apparently in response to changes in the wider North Atlantic. Annual tidal analyses indicate M2 reached an all‐time high amplitude last year (2018). Here we report new estimates of tides derived from nineteenth century water‐level measurements found in the U.S. National Archives. Results from Eastport, Portland, and Pulpit Harbor (tied to Bar Harbor) do not follow the twentieth century trends and indicate that the Gulf of Maine tide changes commenced sometime in the late nineteenth or early twentieth centuries, coincident with a transition to modern rates of sea‐level rise as observed at Boston and Portland. General agreement is that sea level rise alone is insufficient to cause the twentieth‐century tide changes. A role for ocean stratification is suggested by the long‐term warming of Gulf of Maine waters; archival water temperatures at Boston, Portland, and Eastport show increases of ∼2 °C since the 1880s. In addition, a changing seasonal dependence in M2 amplitudes is reflected in a changing seasonal dependence in water temperatures. The observations suggest that models seeking to reproduce Gulf of Maine tides must consider both sea level rise and long‐term changes in stratification

Warming of the Willamette River, 1850–Present: The Effects of Climate Change and Direct Human Interventions

Using archival research methods, we found and combined data from multiple sources to produce a unique, 140 year record of daily water temperature (Tw) in the lower Willamette River, Oregon (1881–1890, 1941–present). Additional daily weather and river flow records from the 1850s onwards are used to develop and validate a statistical regression model of Tw for 1850–2020. The model simulates the time-lagged response of Tw to air temperature and river flow, and is calibrated for three distinct time periods: the late 19th, mid 20th, and early 21st centuries. Results show that Tw has trended upwards at ~1.1 °C /century since the mid-19th century, with the largest shift in January/February (1.3 °C /century) and the smallest in May/June (~ 0.8 °C /century). The duration that the river exceeds the ecologically important threshold of 20 °C has increased by ~20 days since the 1800s, to ~60 d yr-1. Moreover, cold water days below 2 °C have virtually disappeared, and the river no longer freezes. Since ~1900, changes are primarily correlated with increases in air temperature (Tw increase of 0.81 ±0.25 °C) but also occur due to increased reservoir capacity, altered land use and river morphology, and other anthropogenic changes (0.34 ±0.12 °C). Managed release of water influences Tw seasonally, with an average reduction of 0.27 °C and 0.56 °C estimated for August and September. System changes have decreased daily variability (σ) by 0.44 °C, increased thermal memory, and reduced interannual variability. These system changes fundamentally alter the response of Tw to climate change, posing additional stressors on fauna

Circulation, Sediment Concentration and Oxygen Depletion in the Tidal Ems River

We present measurements which show that the tidal Ems River in Germ any is extremely muddy over a 30 km + turbid zone, with fluid mud o f 1-2 m thickness covering the bed with suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) o f greater than 50 kg.m-3. Moreover, we show that these elevated SSC contain large quantities of organic material which deplete dissolved oxygen (DO) and produce summertime hypoxic zones. Using mathematical modeling, we develop simplified representations o f the estuary physics that reproduce the tidally-averaged circulation, SSC distribution, and oxygen depletion. These models show that SSC and oxygen concentrations are extremely sensitive to factors such as the mean depth, the mixing due to bottom friction (turbulence), and river flow. The observed increase in SSC and decrease in DO over the past 25 years is linked to the progressive deepening o f the tidal Em s from 4-5 m to 7 m between 1985- 1994, which moved the turbid zone upstream and decreased mixing. A review of scientific literature and data from the Em s suggests that hum an intervention (dyking,channel modification) combines with more gradual natural changes (sea level rise, climate variation) to continually modify sediment transport

Suspended Sediment Fluxes at an Intertidal Flat: The Shifting Influence of Wave, Wind, Tidal, and Freshwater Forcing

Using in situ, continuous, high frequency (8–16 Hz) measurements of velocity, suspended sediment concentration (SSC), and salinity, we investigate the factors affecting near-bed sediment flux during and after a meteorological event (cold front) on an intertidal flat in central San Francisco Bay. Hydrodynamic forcing occurs over many frequency bands including wind wave, ocean swell, seiching (500–1000 s), tidal, and infra-tidal frequencies, and varies greatly over the time scale of hours and days. Sediment fluxes occur primarily due to variations in flow and SSC at three different scales: residual (tidally averaged), tidal, and seiching. During the meteorological event, sediment fluxes are dominated by increases in tidally averaged SSC and flow. Runoff and wind-induced circulation contribute to an order of magnitude increase in tidally averaged offshore flow, while waves and seiching motions from wind forcing cause an order of magnitude increase in tidally averaged SSC. Sediment fluxes during calm periods are dominated by asymmetries in SSC over a tidal cycle. Freshwater forcing produces sharp salinity fronts which trap sediment and sweep by the sensors over short (∼30 min) time scales, and occur primarily during the flood. The resulting flood dominance in SSC is magnified or reversed by variations in wind forcing between the flood and ebb. Long-term records show that more than half of wind events (sustained speeds of greater than 5 m/s) occur for 3 h or less, suggesting that asymmetric wind forcing over a tidal cycle commonly occurs. Seiching associated with wind and its variation produces onshore sediment transport. Overall, the changing hydrodynamic and meteorological forcing influence sediment flux at both short (minutes) and long (days) time scales

Hydrodynamics and Morphology in the Ems/Dollard Estuary: Review of Models, Measurements, Scientific Literature, and the Effects of Changing Conditions

The Ems estuary has constantly changed over the past centuries both from man-made and natural influences. On the time scale of thousands of years, sea level rise has created the estuary and dynamically changed its boundaries. More recently, storm surges created the Dollard sub-basin in the 14th -15th centuries. Beginning in the 16th century, diking and reclamation of land has greatly altered the surface area of the Ems estuary, particularly in the Dollard. These natural and anthropogenic changes to the surface area of the Ems altered the flow patterns of water, the tidal characteristics, and the patterns of sediment deposition and erosion. Since 1945, reclamation of land has halted and the borders of the Ems estuary have changed little. Sea level rise has continued, and over the past 40 years the rate of increase in mean high water (MHW) along the German coast has accelerated to 40 cm/ century. Climate has varied on a decadal time scale due to long-term variations in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which controls precipitation, temperature, and the direction and magnitude of winds. Between 1960 and 1990 the most intense variation in the NAO index on record was observed. As a result the magnitude and frequency of storm surges increased, and mean wave heights increased at 1-2 cm/year. Currently the NAO index—and therefore storminess—is trending downwards. Over the longer term, global warming models predict an average temperature rise of 2 degrees Celsius over the next century. A doubling of CO2 is expected to increase sea level by 30 cm, while the significant wind speed and wave heights in the North Sea are predicted to increase by 50 cm/s and 50 cm, respectively. Beginning in the late 1950’s, dredging activity and construction measures in harbours and shipping channels greatly altered the physical processes in the Ems. Deepening and streamlining the Ems River and shipping channel between the 1960s and 1990s decreased the hydraulic roughness and increased the tidal range in the river above Emden by as much as 1.5 m. At the turbidity maximum between Emden and Papenburg, concentrations of sediment are currently between 1-2 orders of magnitude larger than in the 1950’s, and fluid mud layers of several meters thickness occur. Other man-made changes, such as gas pipelines and the expansion of harbours, have often caused significant, but more localized, changes to the estuary. Between the mid 19th century and the 1970’s, dumping of organic waste—agricultural, industrial, and human—severely stressed the ecology of the Dollard sub-basin in particular. Since then the input of organic waste has been greatly reduced and anoxic conditions eliminated. However, the increase in turbidity at the turbidity maximum has caused depleted oxygen concentrations and periodic anoxia between Pogum and Papenburg during the summer months (personal communication, H. Juergens; Talke et al, 2005). The Ems is a relatively well studied estuary. Significant research projects have included the BOEDE project in the 1970’s --1980’s and the BOA and INTRAMUD projects in the 1990’s. These projects and other efforts have amassed a deep literature in the knowledge of tidal flats, fluid mud and flocculation, and mixing and dispersion processes. Projects currently underway are focusing on tidal dynamics and the affects of dredging in the high turbidity zone between Emden and Herbrum. Optimal management of the estuary is the goal of the HARBASINS project. Many analytical and numerical models have been applied to the Ems estuary to estimate tidal range, storm surges, wave fields, sediment transport, and mixing and dispersion processes. Analytical models to estimate mixing of scalars and sediment fluxes (Sediment Trend Analysis) have been extensively used. Numerical models such as WAQUA, unTRIM, MIKE3, Telemac 2D, SWAN, Delft 3D –Sed, and others have been applied to the Ems. While reasonable results are found for short term processes (order of days), long-term morphological change cannot yet be predicted. For the Ems catchement basin, the numerical models REGFLUD and FLUMAGIS are used to estimate nutrient inputs from diffuse sources and to visualize and evaluate the effects of land-use change

The Influence of selected air pollutants on fuel cells under realistic conditions in vehicles

Im Rahmen des Klimaschutzes und des Schutzes der Bevölkerung vor Schadstoffen kommt der Elektromobilität in Deutschland und auch weltweit eine wachsende Bedeutung zu. Die Brennstoffzellentechnologie stellt hierbei einen wichtigen Baustein dar, da sie u.a. hohe Reichweiten mit kurzen Betankungszeiten vereint. Für eine erfolgreiche Markteinführung müssen allerdings die Kosten weiter gesenkt und die Robustheit sowie die Lebensdauer der Systeme weiter gesteigert werden. In diesem Zusammenhang ist bekannt, dass verschiedene Luftschadstoffe zu einem kurzfristigen Leistungsverlust von Brennstoffzellen führen und langfristig ihre Lebensdauer verringern. Aus diesem Grunde wurde im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit eine umfassende Untersuchung der Wirkung ausgewählter gasförmiger Luftschadstoffe auf Fahrzeug-Brennstoffzellen unter realistischen Bedingungen vorgenommen. Des Weiteren wurde eine Betriebsstrategie als geeignete Gegenmaßnahme gegen Schadstoffe entwickelt. Dabei wurde zunächst detailliert der aktuelle Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik überprüft, wobei festgestellt wurde, dass vor allem grundlegende Erkenntnisse zu der Thematik vorliegen, die nicht geeignet sind, die Relevanz des Problems für Brennstoffzellenfahrzeuge zu quantifizieren und zu verhindern. Darüber hinaus waren die relevanten Schadstoffkonzentrationen unbekannt. Aus diesem Grund wurden eigene Versuche durchgeführt, die von grundlegenden Untersuchungen zu realistischen Versuchen mit Fahrzeugbetriebsbedingungen reichten. Hierzu wurden an drei verschiedenen Prüfständen 34 Einzelzellen und 18 zehnzellige Brennstoffzellenstacks insgesamt etwa 18.700 Stunden betrieben. Hierbei wurde die Wirkung der Schadstoffe NO, NO2, NH3, SO2, Propan, Butan, Ethan, Ethen, Ethin, Toluol und Acetaldehyd untersucht und u.a. die Methoden Massentransportwiderstandsmessungen, Cyclovoltametrie, elektrochemische Impedanzspektroskopie, Stromverteilungsmessungen, Kontaktwinkelmessungen, und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie angewendet. Im Rahmen des vom BMWi geförderten Projekts „ALASKA“ wurden darüber hinaus Luftschadstoffmessungen in einem mobilen Messlabor im Straßenverkehr von der Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH durchgeführt. Während dieser konnten die Konzentrationen relevanter Schadstoffe im Straßenverkehr ermittelt werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass mit Ausnahme der drei Alkane alle verwendeten Schadstoffe eine negative Wirkung auf die Brennstoffzelle ausüben und der resultierende Leistungsabfall auf eine Adsorption der Schadstoffe am Katalysator zurückzuführen ist. Diese Wirkung ist im Falle der Stickoxide und der Kohlenwasserstoffe auch ohne weitere Maßnahmen reversibel. Nur SO2 und NH3 zeigen direkt eine irreversible Wirkung. Hierbei wirkt NH3 spontan am Katalysator und reagiert zusätzlich mit den Sulfonsäuregruppen des Ionomers, wodurch die Brennstoffzelle zunehmend irreversibel geschädigt wird. NO / NO2 und wahrscheinlich auch weitere katalysatoraffine Schadstoffe können zudem nach mehr als 1.000 Betriebsstunden auch eine irreversible Leistungsschädigung der BZ verursachen. Die irreversiblen Leistungseinbußen sind nur schwer zu quantifizieren, aber aufgrund der Luftschadstoffmessungen kann in Deutschland von spontanen Leistungsverlusten von etwa 5 % im Normalfall und über 10 % in Sondersituationen durch die Stickoxide ausgegangen werden. NH3 wird zu einem spontanen Leistungsverlust von weniger als 3 % führen, aber zusammen mit SO2 eine fortschreitende irreversible Schädigung zur Folge haben. Gegen diese Wirkungen wurde eine dreiteilige Betriebsstrategie entwickelt. Sie umfasst einen präventiven Teil, der das Eindringen aller Schadstoffe in den Stack verhindert, einen interventiven Teil, der den negativen Einfluss von NH3 verhindern und sogar regenerieren kann sowie einen postventiven Teil, der während eines Werkstattaufenthalts vorangegangene Schädigungen der Brennstoffzelle regeneriert.In terms of climate protection and the protection of the population against pollutants, electro mobility is becoming increasingly important in Germany and worldwide. Fuel cell technology is an important element in this respect since it includes high ranges with short refueling times for example. However, for a successful market launch costs must be further reduced, the robustness and the life expectancy of the systems must be further increased. In this context it is known that different air pollutants lead to a short-term loss of performance of fuel cells and reduce their life expectancy in the long term. For this reason, a comprehensive study of the effect of selected gaseous airborne pollutants on vehicle fuel cells was carried out under realistic conditions. Furthermore, an operational strategy was developed as a suitable countermeasure against the negative effects of air pollutants. At first the current state of science and technology was examined in detail, whereby it was detected that in particular fundamental findings on the influence of air contaminants are available. However, these were not suitable for quantifying the relevance of this issue and preventing the problem for fuel cell vehicles. In addition, the relevant pollutant concentrations in traffic situations were unknown. For this reason, own tests were carried out, which ranged from basic investigations to realistic tests under vehicle operating conditions. For this purpose, 34 single cells and 18 ten-cell fuel cell stacks were operated for a total of about 18700 hours at three different test stands. The effect of the pollutants NO, NO2, NH3, SO2, propane, butane, ethane, ethene, ethyne, toluene and acetaldehyde was examined. The methods mass transport resistance measurements, cyclovoltametry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, current distribution measurements, contact angle measurements and scanning electron microscopy were utilized. As part of the "ALASKA" project, sponsored by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, air pollution measurements in road traffic were carried out by the research center Jülich in a mobile laboratory. The concentrations of relevant pollutants were thereby determined. It has been shown that, except the three alkanes, all the tested pollutants exhibit a negative effect on the fuel cell. The resulting performance loss is attributable to an adsorption of the pollutants on the catalyst. In the case of the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, this effect is reversible without further procedures. Only SO2 and NH3 provoke an irreversible effect directly. NH3 reacts spontaneously with the catalyst and additionally with the sulfonic acid groups of the ionomer. As a result the performance loss of the fuel cell is increasingly irreversible. NO / NO2 and probably other catalyst-affine pollutants can cause an irreversible performance loss to the fuel cell as well after more than 1000 operating hours. Due to the results of the air pollution measurements, spontaneous power losses of about 5 % and over 10 % in special situations by the nitrogen oxides can be expected. NH3 will lead to a spontaneous power loss of less than 3 %, but causes a progressive irreversible damage together with SO2. A tripartite operating strategy was developed to minimize these negative effects. It includes a preventative part that prohibits the ingress of all pollutants into the stack, an interventive part that prevents and even regenerates the negative influence of NH3, as well as a post-active part that regenerates previous damage to the fuel cell during a workshop stay.In terms of climate protection and the protection of the population against pollutants, electro mobility is becoming increasingly important in Germany and worldwide. Fuel cell technology is an important element in this respect since it includes high ranges with short refueling times for example. However, for a successful market launch costs must be further reduced, the robustness and the life expectancy of the systems must be further increased. In this context it is known that different air pollutants lead to a short-term loss of performance of fuel cells and reduce their life expectancy in the long term. For this reason, a comprehensive study of the effect of selected gaseous airborne pollutants on vehicle fuel cells was carried out under realistic conditions. Furthermore, an operational strategy was developed as a suitable countermeasure against the negative effects of air pollutants. At first the current state of science and technology was examined in detail, whereby it was detected that in particular fundamental findings on the influence of air contaminants are available. However, these were not suitable for quantifying the relevance of this issue and preventing the problem for fuel cell vehicles. In addition, the relevant pollutant concentrations in traffic situations were unknown. For this reason, own tests were carried out, which ranged from basic investigations to realistic tests under vehicle operating conditions. For this purpose, 34 single cells and 18 ten-cell fuel cell stacks were operated for a total of about 18700 hours at three different test stands. The effect of the pollutants NO, NO2, NH3, SO2, propane, butane, ethane, ethene, ethyne, toluene and acetaldehyde was examined. The methods mass transport resistance measurements, cyclovoltametry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, current distribution measurements, contact angle measurements and scanning electron microscopy were utilized. As part of the "ALASKA" project, sponsored by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, air pollution measurements in road traffic were carried out by the research center Jülich in a mobile laboratory. The concentrations of relevant pollutants were thereby determined. It has been shown that, except the three alkanes, all the tested pollutants exhibit a negative effect on the fuel cell. The resulting performance loss is attributable to an adsorption of the pollutants on the catalyst. In the case of the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, this effect is reversible without further procedures. Only SO2 and NH3 provoke an irreversible effect directly. NH3 reacts spontaneously with the catalyst and additionally with the sulfonic acid groups of the ionomer. As a result the performance loss of the fuel cell is increasingly irreversible. NO / NO2 and probably other catalyst-affine pollutants can cause an irreversible performance loss to the fuel cell as well after more than 1000 operating hours. Due to the results of the air pollution measurements, spontaneous power losses of about 5 % and over 10 % in special situations by the nitrogen oxides can be expected. NH3 will lead to a spontaneous power loss of less than 3 %, but causes a progressive irreversible damage together with SO2. A tripartite operating strategy was developed to minimize these negative effects. It includes a preventative part that prohibits the ingress of all pollutants into the stack, an interventive part that prevents and even regenerates the negative influence of NH3, as well as a post-active part that regenerates previous damage to the fuel cell during a workshop stay

Estimating River Discharge Using Multiple-Tide Gauges Distributed Along a Channel

Reliable estimation of freshwater inflow to the ocean from large tidal rivers is vital for water resources management and climate analyses. Discharge gauging stations are typically located beyond the tidal intrusion reach, such that inputs and losses occurring closer to the ocean are not included. Here, we develop a method of estimating river discharge using multiple gauges and time-dependent tidal statistics determined via wavelet analysis. The Multiple-gauge Tidal Discharge Estimate (MTDE) method is developed using data from the Columbia River and Fraser River estuaries and calibrated against river discharge. Next, we evaluate the general applicability of MTDE by testing an idealized two-dimensional numerical model, with a convergent cross-sectional profile, for eighty-one cases in which nondimensional numbers for friction, river flow, and convergence length scale are varied. The simulations suggest that MTDE is applicable to a variety of tidal systems. Model results and data analyses together suggest that MTDE works best with at least three gauges: a reference station near the river mouth, and two upstream gauges that respond strongly to distinct portions of the observed range of flow. The balance between tidal damping and amplifying factors determines the favorable location of the gauges. Compared to previous studies, the MTDE method improves the time resolution of estimates (from 2.5 to \u3c 1 week) and is applicable to systems with mixed diurnal/semidiurnal tides. However, model results suggest that tide-induced residual flows such as the Stokes drift may still affect the accuracy of MTDE at seaward locations during periods of low river discharge

1. Bibliotheksschranken im Urheberrecht: Allgemeines

Das Kapitel befasst sich mit allgemeinen Fragen urheberrechtlicher Schranken, mit besonderem Schwerpunkts auf Bibliotheks-Dienstleistungen