Religion between State and Society

In contrast to mainstream historiography, secularisation was not a distinct process in nineteenth-century Europe, since the century was a period of religious revival. In the late nineteenth century, in spite of weakening church attendance and rising agnosticism brought on by urbanisation and migration, religion remained attractive for the middle class and social movements related to church membership emerged in politics. In this chapter the diversity of religion in Europe is treated. The author distinguishes between hierarchical and nonhierarchical types of Christian churches, and between four religious regions in Europe. This situation had effects on the relationship between state and religion

The Decline of Industry. The Rurh Area in Germany

The effects of the decline of industry on urban development can particularly be felt in the former nineteenth-century industrial regions in Europe. In Germany the Ruhr Area was one of the most important industrial regions with a dominance of heavy industry (coal, steel, chemicals and energy). Although the area had a strong urbanisation level, the urbanisation pattern was strongly influ-enced by the development of industry. Thus, the southern parts were more urbanised as the later developed northern parts and suburbs in the neighbourhood of the plants soon dominated the urban fabric to the detriment of the former centres. Although the area had a population of over 5 million inhabitants and the urbanisation level was quite high, plans to make one administrative region never were successful. The decline of heavy industry, which started in the 1970s., showed a comparable pattern as in other European (and American) industrial regions. Compared to other regions of Europe, which were affected by the decline of industry, the Ruhr Area did not collapse totally.Thanks to the policies of the central and regional government (Bund and Land) it was possible to transform the area partially (ecological, cultural and educational policies). However, the existence of independent urban communities could be seen as a problem, because it led to strong inter-urban competition at a moment that the incomes of these communities dimin-ished. The decline of industry not only meant the development of social weaker traditional urban centres with mass unemployment, but also placed a heavy burden on urban governments to supply social help

Continuous monitoring of PbrO2 in patients with severe head injury

The first Chapter is an introduction to neurotraumatology. The incidence of severe head injury, and its financial burden to society is described. General information is provided on the currently used monitoring modalities in patients with severe head injury. Finally a description is given of the polarographic monitoring method for measuring oxygen tension in brain tissue (PbrO2) used in our studies. The study questions are specified focussing on clinical applicability of PbrO2 measurements in TBI and interpretation of findings. In Chapter 2 preliminary experience with brain tissue PO2 (PbrO2) monitoring in a group of 22 patients with a severe head injury is described. PbrO2 was measured with a polarographic microcatheter. For introduction of the catheter a specially devised intracranial bolt was used. Measurements started as soon as possible after the injury and the study protocol specified an observation period of a maximum of 120 hours post trauma. The rationale for this time period was that during the initial period after trauma low Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) values have been reported with Xe CT studies, and that vasospasm mostly occurs before day 5 after injury. Both potential ischemic phenomena are covered by the observation period chosen. During the observation period two provocation tests were included in the study protocol performed on a dayly basis. Firstly, an O2 provocation test, by increasing the fraction of inspired oxygen stepwise to 1.0, and secondly a carbon dioxide reactivity test performed by increasing the respiratory minute volume of the patient by 20%. The observation period was preliminary terminated by early death or if clinical improvement of the patient occurred to an extent that ICP monitoring was no longer considered necessary. PbrO2 monitoring was started on average 7.0 hours after trauma with a mean duration of 74.3 hours. The chapter provides an extensive description of all phenomena observed. No complications were seen related to the PbrO2 catheter. The catheters showed a zero display error of 1.2 ± 0.8 mmHg and a sensitivity drift of 9.7 ± 5.3% after the measurement period. The first approach to analyse the PbrO2 value was to average all PO2 values according to the time after injury. Using this method of analysis we observed low average values during the initial 24 hours after injury, increasing toward a peak value during the second 24 hours reaching a plateau value after 36-48 hours after injury. Beyond this time period mean PbrO2 showed no further changes

Localization of dopamine D2 receptor in rat spinal cord identified with immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization

In the present study the distribution of dopamine D2 receptors in rat spinal cord was determined by means of immunocytochemistry using an anti-peptide antibody, directed against the putative third intracellular loop of the D2 receptor and in situ hybridization (ISH) using a [35S]UTP labelled anti-sense riboprobe. With the immunocytochemical technique, labelling was confined to neuronal cell bodies and their proximal dendrites. Strongest labelling was present in the parasympathetic area of the sacral cord and in two sexually dimorphic motor nuclei of the lumbosacral cord, the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus and the dorsolateral nucleus. Moderately labelled cells were present in the intermediolateral cell column, the area around the central canal and lamina I of the dorsal horn. Weak labelling was present in the lateral spinal nucleus and laminae VII and VIII of the ventral horn. Except for the two sexually dimorphic motornuclei of the lumbosacral cord labelled motoneurons were not encountered. With the ISH technique radioactive labelling was present in many neurons, indicating that they contained D2 receptor mRNA. The distribution of these neurons was very similar to the distribution obtained with immunocytochemistry, but with ISH additional labelled cells were detected in laminae III and IV of the dorsal horn, which were never labelled with immunocytochemistry. The present study shows that the De receptor is expressed in specific areas of the rat spinal cord. This distribution provides anatomical support for the involvement of D2 receptors in modulating nociceptive transmission and autonomic control. Our data further indicate that D2 receptors are not directly involved in modulating motor functions with the exception, possibly, of some sexual motor functions

Projecting features and featuring projections

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Systematic Density Expansion of the Lyapunov Exponents for a Two-dimensional Random Lorentz Gas

We study the Lyapunov exponents of a two-dimensional, random Lorentz gas at low density. The positive Lyapunov exponent may be obtained either by a direct analysis of the dynamics, or by the use of kinetic theory methods. To leading orders in the density of scatterers it is of the form $A_{0}\tilde{n}\ln\tilde{n}+B_{0}\tilde{n}$, where $A_{0}$ and $B_{0}$ are known constants and $\tilde{n}$ is the number density of scatterers expressed in dimensionless units. In this paper, we find that through order $(\tilde{n}^{2})$, the positive Lyapunov exponent is of the form $A_{0}\tilde{n}\ln\tilde{n}+B_{0}\tilde{n}+A_{1}\tilde{n}^{2}\ln\tilde{n} +B_{1}\tilde{n}^{2}$. Explicit numerical values of the new constants $A_{1}$ and $B_{1}$ are obtained by means of a systematic analysis. This takes into account, up to $O(\tilde{n}^{2})$, the effects of {\it all\/} possible trajectories in two versions of the model; in one version overlapping scatterer configurations are allowed and in the other they are not.Comment: 12 pages, 9 figures, minor changes in this version, to appear in J. Stat. Phy

The Lyapunov spectrum of the many-dimensional dilute random Lorentz gas

For a better understanding of the chaotic behavior of systems of many moving particles it is useful to look at other systems with many degrees of freedom. An interesting example is the high-dimensional Lorentz gas, which, just like a system of moving hard spheres, may be interpreted as a dynamical system consisting of a point particle in a high-dimensional phase space, moving among fixed scatterers. In this paper, we calculate the full spectrum of Lyapunov exponents for the dilute random Lorentz gas in an arbitrary number of dimensions. We find that the spectrum becomes flatter with increasing dimensionality. Furthermore, for fixed collision frequency the separation between the largest Lyapunov exponent and the second largest one increases logarithmically with dimensionality, whereas the separations between Lyapunov exponents of given indices not involving the largest one, go to fixed limits.Comment: 8 pages, revtex, 6 figures, submitted to Physical Review

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