Genome-Wide Gene Expression Analysis in Cancer Cells Reveals 3D Growth to Affect ECM and Processes Associated with Cell Adhesion but Not DNA Repair

Cell morphology determines cell behavior, signal transduction, protein-protein interaction, and responsiveness to external stimuli. In cancer, these functions profoundly contribute to resistance mechanisms to radio- and chemotherapy. With regard to this aspect, this study compared the genome wide gene expression in exponentially growing cell lines from different tumor entities, lung carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, under more physiological three-dimensional (3D) versus monolayer cell culture conditions. Whole genome cDNA microarray analysis was accomplished using the Affymetrix HG U133 Plus 2.0 gene chip. Significance analysis of microarray (SAM) and t-test analysis revealed significant changes in gene expression profiles of 3D relative to 2D cell culture conditions. These changes affected the extracellular matrix and were mainly associated with biological processes like tissue development, cell adhesion, immune system and defense response in contrast to terms related to DNA repair, which lacked significant alterations. Selected genes were verified by semi-quantitative RT-PCR and Western blotting. Additionally, we show that 3D growth mediates a significant increase in tumor cell radio- and chemoresistance relative to 2D. Our findings show significant gene expression differences between 3D and 2D cell culture systems and indicate that cellular responsiveness to external stress such as ionizing radiation and chemotherapeutics is essentially influenced by differential expression of genes involved in the regulation of integrin signaling, cell shape and cell-cell contact

Signal log ratios of selected genes from DNA microarray-based analysis subjected to semi-quantitative RT-PCR verification.

<p>Expression of the genes TXNIP1, DUSP6, CEACAM1, NPC1 and BCL2A1 is delineated comparatively from 3D versus 2D cell cultures of A549 and UT-SCC15 cells.</p

Validation of microarray gene expression data on protein level.

<p>(A) Signal log ratios of selected genes (FN1, CTGF, ERBB3 and BCL2A1) from DNA microarray-based analysis subjected to Western blot analysis. (B) Whole cell lysates were prepared from 3D and 2D cell cultures on day 4 after plating. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis were performed as described under <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0034279#s2" target="_blank">Material and Methods</a>. Representative images show expression of Fibronectin (240 kDa), CTGF (38 kDa), ErbB3 (180 kDa) and BCL2A1 (20 kDa). β-actin served as loading control. (C) Densitometric units of protein bands shown in ‘B’ are plotted upon normalization to β-actin.</p

Clusters and RNA ratios of differentially expressed genes in 3D and 2D cell cultures of A549 and UT-SCC15 cells.

<p>(A) Hierarchical clusters of genes of 2D and 3D cell cultures at day 4 after plating. Red indicates genes expressed above average; green indicates genes expressed below average and black indicates average expression after Significance Analysis of Microarrays (SAM). “Positive” indicates genes upregulated in 3D versus 2D. “Negative” indicates genes downregulated in 3D versus 2D. (B) Plot of number of transcripts against signal log ratios from 3D versus 2D cell cultures of A549 and UT-SCC15 cells. (C) Gene Ontology-dependent plotting of absolute numbers and percentage of significantly modified genes in 3D versus 2D cell cultures according to SAM analysis.</p

Effect of Telomere Proximity on Telomere Position Effect, Chromosome Healing, and Sensitivity to DNA Double-Strand Breaks in a Human Tumor Cell Line ▿

The ends of chromosomes, called telomeres, are composed of a DNA repeat sequence and associated proteins, which prevent DNA degradation and chromosome fusion. We have previously used plasmid sequences integrated adjacent to a telomere to demonstrate that mammalian telomeres suppress gene expression, called telomere position effect (TPE). We have also shown that subtelomeric regions are highly sensitive to double-strand breaks, leading to chromosome instability, and that this instability can be prevented by the addition of a new telomere to the break, a process called chromosome healing. We have now targeted the same plasmid sequences to a site 100 kb from a telomere in a human carcinoma cell line to address the effect of telomere proximity on telomere position effect, chromosome healing, and sensitivity to double-strand breaks. The results demonstrate a substantial decrease in TPE 100 kb from the telomere, demonstrating that TPE is very limited in range. Chromosome healing was also diminished 100 kb from the telomere, consistent with our model that chromosome healing serves as a repair process for restoring lost telomeres. Conversely, the region 100 kb from the telomere was highly sensitive to double-strand breaks, demonstrating that the sensitive region is a relatively large target for ionizing radiation-induced chromosome instability

Cell morphology, doubling times and cellular radiosensitivity of A549 and UT-SCC15 cells under 2D or 3D growth conditions.

<p>(A) Representative pictures and schematic of 2D (<i>i</i>, <i>iii</i>) and 3D (<i>ii, iv</i>) cell growth as found at day 4 immediately before RNA isolation. Bars, 50 µm. (B) Doubling times of 2D and 3D cell cultures at day 4 after plating. Results show mean ± SD (n = 3). n.s., not significant. Clonogenic survival of 2D or 3D grown cells exposed to increasing X-ray doses (2, 4 or 6 Gy) (C) or Cisplatin concentrations (0.1, 1, 5, 10 µM) (D) applied 24 h after plating. Cisplatin was removed after 24 h by 3- (2D) or 15-times (3D) washing with DMEM/10% FCS/1% NEAA. Results show mean ± SD (n = 3; t-test). * P<0.05; ** P<0.01. CDDP, Cisplatin. Bar, 200 µm.</p

z-scores calculated for selected GO terms and pathways^a.

a<p>z-scores were calculated according to the GenMAPP manual based on the genes identified by t-test. A z-score value of −1.96 or 1.96 corresponds to a p-value of 0.05. The higher the absolute value of the z-score the more significant is the enrichment of changed genes in the scored pathway. Significant z-scores are high-lighted in bold letters.</p

Validation of microarray gene expression data by semi-quantitative RT-PCR.

<p>(A) Semi-quantitative RT-PCR was performed as described under <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0034279#s2" target="_blank">Materials and Methods</a>. Shown are 1% agarose gels with RT-PCR fragments of TXNIP, DUSP6, CEACAM1, NPC1 and BCL2A1 mRNAs isolated from A549 or UT-SCC15 cells. Samples were amplified from cDNA generated by reverse transcription of total RNA of 4-day old 3D and 2D cell cultures. All experiments (V1, V2, V3) are exhibited. β-actin expression served as loading control (540 bp). (B) Graphs display results from densitometric analysis of indicated mRNA expression after normalization to β-actin. Results show mean ± SD (n = 3).</p

Effectiveness and toxicity of single-fraction radiotherapy with 1 X 8 Gy for metastatic spinal cord compression

Toxicity and functional. outcome were evaluated in 199 MSCC-patients irradiated with 1 X 8 Gy. Motor function improved in 54/199 patients (27%). Patients who regained walking ability were 20/78 (26%). Long-term-survivors (>= 12 months) who needed re-irradiation for in-field-recurrence were 19/65 (29%). Acute toxicity was mild, late toxicity not observed. A randomised trial comparing single-fraction RT to multi-fraction RT is mandatory. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserve