No. 25: Zimbabweans Who Move: Perspectives on International Migration in Zimbabwe

The movement of people across political boundaries has generated considerable debate in Southern Africa. There is a compelling need for Southern African countries to harmonise regional migration policies and to ensure the freer movement of people across the region. However, it must be noted that disparities in levels of development are still evident in the economies of the region. There are fears in countries such as South Africa and Botswana that the freer movement of people will flood them with migrants from the less developed countries. There are also concerns in all the countries of SADC that freer movement will not be well received by citizens, leading to intolerance and xenophobia. As Southern Africa moves towards a more globalised future, there is need for African governments to have the best information on which to make policy decisions. Migration policy is not static but undergoes constant modification as a country’s experiences with and perceptions of migrants change. Immigration policy is often a divisive issue on domestic political agendas. In times of economic recession, immigrants are unjustifiably blamed for high unemployment rates, increasing crime, and land and housing shortages. Politicians often give high priority to migration issues, sometimes alienating ethnic groups and substantially affecting immigration programmes. Immigrantsin pursuit of work have often become pariah citizens in a global order in which, paradoxically, old borders are rapidly dissolving. Rising xenophobia and violence against foreigners are sobering and sad reminders of the negative effects of globalisation. National governments have also been blamed for fuelling xenophobia by perpetuating stereotypes against foreigners, describing them as a ‘flood’ and stereotyping them as criminals. Invariably the way the government treats foreigners also determines the attitude of the local population towards the foreigner. This has also set the tone for a negative representation of foreigners in local newspapers. For example, it has been shown that antiimmigrant sentiments are widespread in South African print media which can also have an impact on the way the local population view foreigners. This has also set the tone for a negative representation of foreigners by officials in local media. The Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) conducts basic research for policy-making on the dynamics of international migration to and within the SADC region. SAMP maintains that a well-informed policy- maker or migration manager is more likely to appreciate the viability of different policy choices and to develop policies that are workable, democratic and consistent with principles of good governance and regional cooperation. Policies based on outdated or misleading information will not only fail but have damaging consequences. From a human rights standpoint, such decisions could violate constitutional guarantees and exacerbate hostility towards non-citizens. SAMP is also committed to conducting such research at a regional scale. Research results from one country, such as Zimbabwe, can be compared with those from the other SADC states. This helps to highlight similarities and differences in national migration regimes but also helps define areas of potential cooperation and harmonization between states. SAMP therefore believes that the collection of reliable and accurate data on the dimensions, causes, impacts and trends in migration is an essential first step. Only then can there be informed debate and movement forward on regional harmonization. Within the Southern African region, Zimbabwe’s migration history is unusual. Historically, countries were either recipient or sending countries for migrants. Zimbabwe was always in the unusual position of being both. Over the years, many Zimbabweans went to work, primarily in South Africa. SAMP research shows, for example, that almost a quarter of adult Zimbabweans have parents and grandparents who have worked in South Africa at some point in their lives. On the other hand, Zimbabwe was a recipient of labour migrants from countries such as Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. At the time of the 1951 census, there were 246,000 foreign Africans in Zimbabwe (40% of them from Mozambique). Zimbabwe was a source, a destination and a corridor. Since independence, Zimbabwe has experienced considerable shifts in the inherited colonial migration pattern: Internal rural-urban migration and urbanization has increased dramatically, although the true extent of this trend will not be evident until the results of the latest census are available. Zimbabwe has become a far more significant exporter of migrant labour as economic conditions in Zimbabwe have deteriorated. Zimbabwe, unlike Mozambique and the BLS countries, has no international bilateral treaty facilitating such movements. As a result, there are only limited opportunities for Zimbabweans to work legally in South Africa. Significant undocumented migration began in the late 1980s and has increased ever since. Zimbabwe is no longer a major recipient of migrant labour except, perhaps, along the border with Mozambique. The volume of ordinary cross-border traffic between Zimbabwe and its neighbours has escalated dramatically over the last decade. Many more Zimbabweans are looking outside the country for the means of livelihood. In a 1997 SAMP survey, Zimbabweans were asked the purpose of their last visit to South Africa. Over 70% had an economic purpose for migrating with 29% going to work or look for work and 42% going to trade or to shop. Documentation and analysis of these trends and their importance for policy-makers has been relatively limited. As a result, in 1996 the Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) entered into a partnership with the Department of Geography at the University of Zimbabwe to generate the research data that is urgently needed. This publication presents some of the results of that partnership. The first chapter provides a general overview of post-independence migration to and from Zimbabwe based on official and other published information sources. The author, Professor Lovemore Zinyama, begins by pointing out that Zimbabweans are a nation of migrants although international migration accounts for only a very small proportion of the total Zimbabwean population movements in any one year. Less than 5% of the total population is estimated to be non-Zimbabwean. In terms of immigration to Zimbabwe, Zinyama notes the shift in sources from Britain and the rest of Europe during the colonial era, to a much wider global catchment dominated by the African continent after independence. A second major shift has been in government policy away from active encouragement of permanent residence to the granting of timelimited residence and employment permits to expatriates. These trends are well documented although both have slowed in the late 1990s. Zimbabwe has also continued to be a recipient of undocumented migrants from its neighbours. The main shift identified by Zinyama is in patterns of migration from the country. Zimbabwe has become a significant brain exporter. The process has occurred in two waves; immediately after independence when skilled whites fled south and more recently, in the 1990s, with growing numbers of black Zimbabweans leaving in search of other pastures. The latter process has in some sense been slowed by the post- 1994 hostility of the South African government towards skilled immigrants from Africa. However, skilled Zimbabweans are now globally marketable and are leaving the country in growing numbers. The 2001 SAMP survey reported by Dr Dan Tevera in Chapter 3 asked a sample of urban Zimbabweans how much consideration they had given to leaving Zimbabwe. Seventy six percent of the respondents reported having considered leaving Zimbabwe, a sign of the times perhaps. The Zimbabwean brain drain is the subject of a forthcoming SAMP policy paper. Parallel with a growth in cross-border informal trading, there are indications that undocumented and unauthorized cross-border migration from Zimbabwe into neighbouring countries has increased markedly since the 1980s. Zinyama identifies two categories of undocumented migrant. The first are Zimbabweans who enter neighbouring countries, mostly Botswana and South Africa, through official exit ports, but then over-stay. The second category comprises those who leave Zimbabwe without valid travel documents and do not use official exit points. This includes individual “border hoppers” and those relying on trafficking syndicates. The numbers are impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy although surveys can and do provide important insights into the intentions, behaviours and strategies of the migrants. The second chapter in this publication provides important verification of this claim. As the author points out, the types, patterns, causes and impacts of the various forms of regional cross-border migration are complex and little understood. For instance, little is known as yet about who travels outside the country, why and how often. A great deal more is now known because of a SAMP public opinion survey amongst migrants conducted in 5 Southern African countries. The results of that regional survey have been exhaustively detailed and analysed in other SAMP publications. Here we include a paper by Lovemore Zinyama which focuses on the migration behaviour of Zimbabweans, as revealed in their answers to the standardized survey. Zinyama argues that in the last decade there has been a qualitative shift in the nature of migration between South Africa and Zimbabwe, accompanying changes in the political and economic conditions of both countries. Migration of young single men for work has continued and even grown. But economic crisis and decline in Zimbabwe have prompted a diversification of household survival strategies. Cross-border migration has become one in a basket of such strategies for many. Formerly, only young single men would migrate for economic reasons. Now growing numbers of women have joined the migration stream. Informal cross-border trade has become dominated by women seeking to supplement their family incomes, to clothe and educate their children. Money obtained while in South Africa is used to purchase goods for importation back to Zimbabwe and subsequent resale of those known to be in short supply at home. More recently, female Zimbabwean crossborder traders have been going to Mozambique, Zambia and even as far afield as Tanzania to purchase and bring home second-hand clothing and goods for resale. The new Zimbabwean migrant is typically a middle-aged family person who uses cross-border migration as one strategy for the survival of her/his family, particularly where this is an urban household. The majority of these people are engaged in a purpose-specific circulatory migration process, but one in which they are only spending very short periods of time in South Africa. In the second chapter, Zinyama provides a detailed demographic and behavioural profile of these new and old migrants from the SAMP survey. In addition, he shows that the migrants have become the target of extreme hostility from South Africans, particularly since 1994. Levels of intolerance are at an alltime high in South Africa, leading to the charge that South Africa is the most xenophobic population in the world. Zimbabweans (and Mozambicans) have been the usual targets of xenophobic sentiment and action on the ground. All Zimbabweans have come to be stereotyped as a social, economic and criminal threat to South Africans. These are clearly stereotypes with little basis in fact or appreciation of the benefits of increased trade and economic interaction between South Africa and Zimbabwe. Apologists for the xenophobic tendencies of South Africans have argued that South Africans are not unique, that similar views and attitudes are found throughout the SADC. Even if true, this does not exonerate South Africans. It simply means that the task of public and official education is that much greater. SAMP therefore set out to test this hypothesis, and to provide SADC governments with baseline information on their own citizens’ attitudes to migration, immigration and refugees. In 2001, SAMP implemented the National Immigration Policy Survey (NIPS) in five SADC countries, including Zimbabwe. The results of the Zimbabwean NIPS are reported in the third chapter by Dan Tevera. The survey showed that, in general, ordinary Zimbabweans are more tolerant and welcoming than South Africans, have a greater appreciation of the benefits of migration to their country and have a much more developed understanding of the necessity for refugee protection. However, there is certainly no room for complacency. In the South African case, levels of hostility were high regardless of the race, age, education, economic status or gender of the respondent. In Zimbabwe, marked differences emerged around the variable of economic and employment status. Of the random sample of urban adults, 38% were engaged in formal employment and 18.5% in informal sector activities. A further 43.2% were unemployed. The answers to questions designed to test attitudes and knowledge consistently broke down along the employed/unemployed divide. They also broke down along the middle-class/poor divide. In other words, Zimbabweans fit the more classical profile in which middle-class, educated and economically-secure people are likely to be more tolerant and accepting of outsiders than the poor and unemployed. This would be a cause for concern given Zimbabwe’s economic crisis and the growth of poverty and unemployment. However, there is little evidence that Zimbabweans explicitly blame migrants and immigrants for this state of affairs (again in stark contrast to South Africans). Zimbabwean migration patterns are currently in a state of flux. It is commonly assumed that the country’s economic and political conditions over the last decade and more recently are influencing out-migration. However, it would be incorrect to suggest that the correlation is simple or direct. More skilled Zimbabweans are leaving but not all are able to do so and many choose to stay, hoping for a turnaround. The unemployed and retrenched are more restless and mobile and South Africa and Botswana are a definite draw card. However, as the South Africans have yet to appreciate, most are circular migrants and would much prefer that Zimbabweans had the same legal mechanisms of access to the South African labour market as do Mozambicans, Batswana, Swazi and Basotho. It is ironic that apartheid-era labour agreements, still in force, shut out Zimbabweans but welcome the others. Zimbabwe needs to seek a general bilateral labour agreement with South Africa, as well as working within the structures of SADC to encourage greater cross-border mobility in the region as a whole. The other major shift of the last decade, requiring a rational policy response on the part of both governments, is the massive growth of informal cross-border trade. Zimbabwe sits at the center of regional informal trade networks. Yet, despite the passage of a SADC Free Trade Protocol, there is still no framework in place for legal informal traders. They are shut out once again in the new South African Immigration Act. This is a gap which urgently requires attention, not least because it discriminates unfairly against women migrants. It is also obstructive of the new emphasis on trade and regional cooperation in SADC. The benefits of freer trade should not be confined to large companies, but to ordinary people as well

Career aspirations of University Of Zimbabwe geography undergraduate students and the supply of graduate geography teachers

A ZJER article on the career aspirations of University of Zimbabwe under-graduate Geography students.Before independence, the majority of geography graduates from the University of Zimbabwe, particularly blacks, used to become teachers in secondary schools. Employment opportunities outside the teaching profession were severely restricted for blacks. Since 1980, however, employment prospects for geography graduates have widened considerably. Although this trend is still on a small scale, it nonetheless is following the pattern in developed countries where only a minority of geography graduates now become teachers. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only about 20% of the annual output of geography graduates in the early 1980s were likely to seek employment in education. The remainder got employed in a wide spectrum of jobs in administration, business, commerce, industry and the environmental field (Balchin, 1983; Briggs, 1988). A sample survey conducted in late 1986 of all Britisn students who obtained their first degrees in 1980 found that, in terms of all jobs held by geography graduates over the six years, 22% were in banking and finance, followed by education with 19% and public administration with 17% (Johnston, 1990). At the University of Glasgow, 28% of the geography graduates between 1981 and 1987 went into business and finance as their first destinations after university while only 18% went into teacher training (Briggs, 1988)

Notes On The Rural Land Resettlement Programme In Zimbabwe

GAZ field notes and lecture presentations during a tour of Eastern Zimbabwe.The land redistribution and resettlement programme, that was launched shortly after independence was aimed at (a) redressing the inequalities in land allocation and (b) relieving population pressures in the overcrowded communal areas. However, the government also recognized the significant role of the large-scale commercial farming sector in terms of providing jobs for some one-third of the total number of people in formal employment (in addition to their dependents),, producing food and industrial raw materials, and earning essential foreign exchange through agricultural exports (e.g. cotton, tobacco and coffee). Consequently,, only land that was vacant or not effectively utilized, or appeared to be held for speculative purposes, would be purchased for resettlement

Factors Influencing Participation In Adult Education At Three Colleges In Zimbabwe

A ZJER article on factors affecting participation in Adult Education.The sudden upsurge in student numbers seeking skilled related further education courses at Zimbabwe polytechnics and technical colleges prompted this study to search for the factors driving adults from all walks of life to participate in education. The study employed the survey method and data was collected through the use of mailed questionnaires, analysis of student enrollment records and informal interviews. The study looked at the whole population of 474 adult learners registered at the time of the investigation. 41 % of the respondents were from Harare polytechnic, 36% from Bulawayo polytechnic and 23% from Mutare technical college. The results revealed that students participate in adult learning mainly to fulfill their personal goals related to their lifestyles and aspirations and to increase knowledge as well as to fill in idle time

The Location Of Manufacturing Industry In Rhodesia Up To 1953

A Geographical Proceegings article on the location of Zimbabwean (Rhodesian) industries as of 1953.The decision to locate an industry at a particular place depends on the consideration of a wide variety of economic and none economic factors. These include the availability and costs of transport facilities, access to raw.materials and markets, infrastructure and services required by industry. The presence of financial institutions, as well as numerous social and personal considerations. Locational analysts have attempted to formulate general theories of location based on economic cost considerations alone. Yet others, appreciative of the importance of non-economic and therefore unquantifiable factors in industrial location, are more interested in finding explanations for the actual spatial patterns rather than the ideal locations

Agricultural Land Use Theory And Its Application With Reference To Africa

A GEM article.This paper is a follow-up on two earlier articles published in this journal which examined key geographical theories and their application to Zimbabwe, the first by Heath (1986) on central place theory and the second by Tevera (1986) on industrial location theory. In keeping with one of the objectives of the current Cambridge Higher School Certificate syllabus, the aim of this series of articles is to provide basic materials on spatial models of human behavior and to demonstrate their assumptions, processes, implications and limitations for use by geography teachers preparing their pupils for the A-level examination. This paper examines the principle features of von Thunen’s agricultural land use model and its application in developing countries, particularly in Africa. Further references from both developed and developing countries are provided for those who wish to establish a collection of empirical case studies

Competencies in Local Government Contracting Out: A Critical Review

This paper reviews the current literature on contracting out competencies and capacities in order to ensure successful implementation of contracting out initiatives. After a brief discussion on concept, this paper illustrates the various competencies and capacities needed during contracting processes. The complete b faith of the neo-liberal development paradigm in market-friendliness and contracting out ignores the competences needed to guarantee effective contracting out. The question of which sector or combination of sectors is best at offering public services have become more relevant and controversial overtime. Contracting out of the provision of public services is part of efforts to reconfigure state-market relations in order to give more prominence to markets and the private sectors. Applying the competencies approach helps determine which model of provision will provide optimal public services to citizens. This paper argues that the effective and efficient management of the relationships with the private sector by government agencies requires a solid foundation of project management and policy competencies. This study found out that legal, regulatory and policy, organisational and individual capacities are cornerstones of effective contract management process. The Bowman et al.’s (2010) Competency Triangle model of Public Service Professionalism informed remarkably the study. Keywords: contracting out, private sector, public sector, competency, capacit

Mannose binding lectin genetic polymorphism: association with HIV-1 infection in adults and children in Zimbabwe

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 15 June 2017Background HIV infection has remained a major global health burden since its discovery in 1983 and Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The HIV pandemic continues to ravage most parts of Southern African countries, current prevalence between 10-20%. Individuals worldwide differ in their degree of susceptibility to HIV infection and genetic polymorphisms play a major role. Mannose Binding Lectin (MBL) is one such immunological factor found in serum/plasma, it is a normal liver-derived protein and is a key component of the innate immune defence system. MBL deficiency, due to mutations in the MBL2 gene and promoter region, leading to decreased plasma/serum MBL concentration, characterised by defective opsonisation activities of the innate immune system and increased susceptibility to infections including HIV-1 and schistosomiasis. Rationale While there is a lot of advancement in HIV prevention and treatment in Southern African countries, there is still need to investigate host genetic molecules in adults and mother-baby pairs that could be playing a role in HIV-1 transmission/acquisition, disease progression and survival. It was imperative to carry out this study because of the need to quantify the burden of MBL deficiency in this Zimbabwean adult and PMTCT study populations. Alsoto contribute to the knowledge gap on the role of MBL deficiency in HIV-1 transmission, disease progression and survival in African populations in adults and children. The available literature shows that the majority of studies on the association of MBL deficiency and HIV-1 infection in adults and children have been done on populations outside the African continent. There is dearth of information on the role of MBL in this era when access to ART has greatly improved even in developing countries like Zimbabwe. This will be the second study that will assess MBL2 genes and promoter typing in mother-infant pairs in HIV vertical transmission/acquisition. This study aimed to identify and explore potential biomarkers for susceptibility to HIV infection and disease progression. We assessed role of MBL deficiency in HIV-1 and schistosoma infections in Zimbabwean adults enrolled in the Mupfure Schistosomiasis and HIV Cohort (MUSH Cohort) (Paper 1).We also assessed the role of MBL deficiency on HIV progression and survival in this African adult population. We hypothesized that MBL deficiency has a role to play in HIV infection by increasing HIV disease progression and decreasing survival (Paper 2). We also determined prevalence of MBL deficiency, as estimated by MBL2 haplotypes among Zimbabwean mothers and their children aged 9-18 months old as well as its association with risk of HIV-1 infection and vertical transmission from their HIV positive mothers (Paper 3). Main Aim The broad objective of this study was to determine the relationship between MBL deficiency and HIV infection in an adult population of males and females and among mother-infant pairs in Zimbabwe. Study Specific Objectives 1. To determine the prevalence of MBL deficiency among the Zimbabwean adult population. 2. To determine the relationship of MBL deficiency with HIV infection among the Zimbabwean adult population. 3. To determine the effect of MBL deficiency on disease progression and survival among the Zimbabwean adult population. 4. To determine prevalence of MBL deficiency among mothers and their infants in a Zimbabwean population. 5. To determine the relationship between MBL deficiency and HIV transmission from mother to child in a Zimbabwean population. Methods DNA and plasma samples for MBL and HIV analysis were collected from the 379 adult males and females from the MUSH cohort and stored dried blood samples from 622 mother infant pairs from a national PMTCT survey. HIV-1, S. haematobium and S. mansoni infections were determined at baseline using HIV commercial kits and parasitologically respectively. Plasma MBL concentration was measured by ELISA and MBL2 genotypes determined by PCR. We calculated and compared the proportions of plasma MBL deficiency, MBL2 structural variant alleles B (codon 54A>G), C (codon 57A>G), and D (codon 52T>C) as well as MBL2 promoter variants -550(H/L), -221(X/Y) and +4(P/Q) between HIV-1 and schistosoma co-infection and control groups using Chi Square test (Paper 1). We also assessed the role of MBL deficiency on HIV disease progression and survival inthe adult (MUSH) cohort.We analysed blood samples for MBL levels, MBL2 genotypes, HIV-1 status, viral load and CD4+ T cell counts (Paper 1). Participants were followed up for 3 years wherein the endpoints were measured at baseline, 6 weeks, 3, 6, 12, 24 and 36 months. Disease progression was measured as the rate of decline in CD4+ T cell counts and the rate of increase in HIV viral load (Paper 2). Generalised Estimating Equations (GEE) models were used to compare rates of change of the CD4+ T cell count and viral load measurements over the three-year follow-up period. The role of plasma MBL deficiency and MBL2 genetic variants on survival over the 3-year period were estimated using the Cox proportional hazard models. Regression analysis was used to test for interaction and confounding between MBL deficiency, MBL2 genetic variance, age and sex. We used the Wald Chi-square statistic to choose between full and nested models. We also assessed MBL2 polymorphisms in Zimbabwean HIV positive mothers and their children enrolled in a national PMTCT survey carried out in 2012. MBL deficiency was defined as presence of A/O and O/O genotypes in the mothers and their children. We extracted DNA from two dried blood spots for 622 mothers and infant pairs using the Gene Extract and Amp kit reagents. MBL2 Exon 1 genotypes and promoter region alleles -221(X/Y) and -550(H/L) SNP were detected by pyrosequencing. Differences in distribution frequency between HIV infected and uninfected children, of the MBL2 genotypes, promoter region variants and MBL2 haplotypes, were determined by the Chi square test or Fisher’s exact tests (Paper 3). Key findings For specific objective number 1, we assessed 379 adults, 80% females, median age (IQR) 30 (17-41) years. HIV-1, S. haematobium and S. mansoni prevalence were 26%, 43% and 18% respectively in the MUSH baseline survey. Median (IQR) plasma MBL concentration was 800μg/L (192-1936μg/L). Prevalence of plasma MBL deficiency was 18% with high frequency of the C (codon 57G>A) mutant allele (20%). For specific objective number 2, we found no significant difference in median plasma MBL levels between HIV negative (912μg/L) and HIV positive (688μg/L), p=0.066. However plasma MBL levels at the assay detection limit of 20μg/L were more frequent among the HIV-1 infected (p=0.007). S. haematobium andS. mansoni infected participants had significantly higher MBL levels than uninfected. All MBL2 variants were not associated with HIV-1 infection but promoter variants LY and LL were significantly associated with S. haematobium infection (Paper 1). For specific objective number 3, we assessed 197 HIV positive adults where 83% (164) were women with a median age of 31 years old. Prevalence of plasma MBL deficiency (less than 100μg/L) and MBL2 deficient genetic variants (A/O and O/O genotypes) was 21% (42 out of 197) and 39% (74 out of 190), respectively. We did not observe a significant role to explain individual variation in mortality, change of CD4+ T cell count and viral load by MBL plasma deficiency or MBL2 genetic variants from baseline to 3 years follow up period in this adult population (Paper 2). For specific objective number 4, from the PMTCT study, the median age (IQR) of the mothers was 30(26 - 34) years and the children mean age (IQR) was 12 (11-15) months old at the time of enrolment. All 622 mothers were HIV-1 infected, 574 babies were HIV negative and 48 were HIV-1 positive babies. MBL2 normal structural allele A and variants B (codon 5A>G), C (codon 57 A>G) and promoter region SNPs -550(H/L) and -221(X/Y) were detected. Prevalence of MBL deficiency was 34% among the mothers and 32% among the children. For specific objective number 5, we found no association between maternal MBL2 deficiency and HIV-1 transmission to their children. We found no difference in the distribution of HIV-1 infected and uninfected children between the MBL2 genotypes of the mothers and those of the children (Paper 3). Conclusions The results from our study indicate high prevalence of MBL deficiency but we found no evidence of association between MBL deficiency and HIV-1 infection. However, lower plasma MBL levels were associated with reduced prevalence of both S. haematobium and S. mansoni infections and MBL2 promoter and variants LY and LL were associated with increased susceptibility to S. haematobium infection (Paper 1). Our findings attest to the large between-population variability in a host of factors that can predispose individuals susceptible to HIV progression and mortality. We therefore cannot recommend at this time the use of plasma MBL levels or MBL2 genetic variants as a prognostic marker in HIV infection, disease progression and survival in this adult population in Africa (Paper 2). MBL deficiency was not associated with HIV-1 infection among the children nor was it associated with HIV-1 vertical transmission in this study population (Paper 3).MT201

Post-primary educational and training opportunities for adults in Harare

A study to ascertain the post-primary school training and educational opportunities for adults in Harare, Zimbabwe.The analysis was undertaken to find out the situation regarding opportunities for post primary education and training for adults in Harare. Specifically the analysis sought to establish what institutions offered these opportunities, ownership of the institutions, where the institutions are physically located, fields of study offered, institutional capacity and gender balance among teachers and students. Data were collected on 175 Harare-based institutions. The major findings of the analysis were that: (i) out of the 175 institutions studied 104 (59.43 %) are physically located in the city, 48 (27.43%) are in the low and23(13:14) in high density areas; (ii) computer studies was found to be the most popular field of study in Harare-based institutions; (Hi) only 38.8% of the teaching staff in these institutions were in possession of a diploma or university degree

Public-Private Partnerships: Critical Review and Lessons for Zimbabwe

PPPs are increasingly seen as a mechanism to develop infrastructure on a cost effective and sustainable basis. If properly managed, PPPs have a potential to unlock the much needed financial resources to fund projects on electricity, telecommunications, transport, water, education and the health sectors. This article examines the current debate about PPPs and global experiences. Zimbabwe’s experience with the PPPs was also discussed. The study used documentary search for data gathering. The major finding is that there is low uptake of PPPs in Zimbabwe. There are no legal and clearly defined institutional frameworks. The literature reviewed has thrown some lessons for Zimbabwe. Keywords: Public-Private Partnerships, Zimbabwe, infrastructur