PCNA-Ub polyubiquitination inhibits cell proliferation and induces cell-cycle checkpoints

<p>In response to replication-blocking lesions, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) can be sequentially ubiquitinated at the K164 residue leading to 2 modes of DNA-damage tolerance, namely translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) and error-free lesion bypass. Ectopic expression of PCNA fused with ubiquitin (Ub) lacking the 2 C-terminal Gly residues resembles PCNA monoubiquitination-mediated TLS. However, if the fused Ub contains C-terminal Gly residues, it is further polyubiquitinated and inhibits cell proliferation. Unexpectedly, the polyubiquitination chain does not require any surface Lys residues and is likely to be head-to-tail linked. Such PCNA polyubiquitination interferes with replication, arrests cells at the S-phase and activates the p53 checkpoint pathway. The above cell-cycle arrest is reversible in an ATR-dependent manner, as simultaneous inhibition of ATR, but not ATM, induces apoptosis. Since ectopic expression of PCNA-Ub also induces double-strand breaks that colocalize with single-stranded DNA, we infer that this non-canonical PCNA poly-Ub chain serves as a signal to activate ATR checkpoint and recruit double-strand-break repair apparatus.</p

Additional file 1 of Aptamer modified Ti3C2 nanosheets application in smart targeted photothermal therapy for cancer

Additional file 1: Figure S1. SEM images of (a) Ti3AlC2 ceramic bulks and (b) Ti3C2 bulks. Figure S2. (a) AFM image and (b) the corresponding thickness of Ti3C2 nanosheets. Figure S3. EDS spectra of Ti3C2 nanosheets. Figure S4. XPS spectra of Ti3C2 nanosheets. Figure S5. Digital images of Ti3C2 nanosheets and Ti3C2/Apt-M nanosheets dispersed in various solvents. Figure S6. Digital images of hemolysis assay of Ti3C2, Ti3C2-PEG and Ti3C2/Apt-M nanosheets at different concentrations. Figure S7. UV–vis spectra of Ti3C2, Ti3C2-PEG and Ti3C2/Apt-M nanosheets. Figure S8. UV–vis spectra of (a) Ti3C2, (b) Ti3C2-PEG and (c) Ti3C2/Apt-C nanosheets at different concentrations. Mass extinction coefficient of (d) Ti3C2, (e) Ti3C2-PEG and (f) Ti3C2/Apt-C nanosheets at 808 nm. Normalized absorbance intensity at λ = 808 nm divided by the characteristic length of the cell (A/L) at varied concentrations (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 µg mL−1). Figure S9. Photothermal performance of (a) Ti3C2, (b) Ti3C2-PEG and (c) Ti3C2/Apt-C nanosheets dispersed in aqueous solution under 808 nm laser irradiation. Calculation of time constant and photothermal-conversion efficiency of (d) Ti3C2, (e) Ti3C2-PEG and (f) Ti3C2/Apt-C nanosheets at 808 nm laser irradiation. Figure S10. (a) Infrared thermal images and (b) temperature changes of Ti3C2/Apt-M nanosheet aqueous solutions under different laser power irradiation at 808 nm. Figure S11. Cell viabilities of (a-b) MCF-7 and (c-d) HepG2 cells after incubation with Ti3C2-PEG, Ti3C2/Apt-M and Ti3C2/Apt-C nanosheets of varied concentrations for 24 h and 48 h. Figure S12. Cell viability of (a) MCF-7 and (b) HepG2 cells treated with different concentrations of Ti3C2-PEG, Ti3C2/Apt-C and Ti3C2/Apt-M nanosheets. Figure S13. (a) The representative infrared thermal images and (b) temperature curves of tumor-bearing mice with different treatments at different time points. Figure S14. Body weight curves of tumor-bearing mice after different treatments in 17 d. Figure S15. H&E stained tissue sections of major organs (heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney) from mice with different treatments. Scale bar: 100 μm. Table S1. Aptamer sequences. Table S2. The photothermal performance parameters (mass extinction coefficient and photothermal conversion efficiency) of various nanoagents in the literatures

KSHV MicroRNAs Mediate Cellular Transformation and Tumorigenesis by Redundantly Targeting Cell Growth and Survival Pathways

<div><p>Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is causally linked to several human cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman's disease, malignancies commonly found in HIV-infected patients. While KSHV encodes diverse functional products, its mechanism of oncogenesis remains unknown. In this study, we determined the roles KSHV microRNAs (miRs) in cellular transformation and tumorigenesis using a recently developed KSHV-induced cellular transformation system of primary rat mesenchymal precursor cells. A mutant with a cluster of 10 precursor miRs (pre-miRs) deleted failed to transform primary cells, and instead, caused cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Remarkably, the oncogenicity of the mutant virus was fully restored by genetic complementation with the miR cluster or several individual pre-miRs, which rescued cell cycle progression and inhibited apoptosis in part by redundantly targeting IκBα and the NF-κB pathway. Genomic analysis identified common targets of KSHV miRs in diverse pathways with several cancer-related pathways preferentially targeted. These works define for the first time an essential viral determinant for KSHV-induced oncogenesis and identify NF-κB as a critical pathway targeted by the viral miRs. Our results illustrate a common theme of shared functions with hierarchical order among the KSHV miRs.</p></div

Multiple KSHV miRs rescue cellular transformation and tumorigenesis of the Mut virus.

<p>(A) Formation of colonies in softagar medium plated with MM cells infected by WT, REV and Mut viruses and Mut virus complemented by individual KSHV pre-miRs (MutKi), miR cluster (MutCl) or vector control (MutVt). (B–C) Tumor incidences over time (B) and Kaplan-Meier survival curves (C) of nude mice inoculated with MM cells infected by WT virus or Mut virus complemented by individual KSHV pre-miRs or vector control. Tumor volume of 0.2 cm³ was used as a threshold for tumor incidence. Tumor analyses were performed at 10 weeks following inoculation of the cells or when the volumes reached 1 cm³.</p

A model illustrating the regulation of cellular transformation by KSHV miRs.

<p>A model illustrating the regulation of cellular transformation by KSHV miRs.</p

Top enriched pathways in WT cells compared to Mut cells.

<p>Top enriched pathways in WT cells compared to Mut cells.</p

KSHV miRs promote cellular proliferation by regulating cell cycle and inhibiting apoptosis.

<p>(A–D) Growth curves (A), cell cycle profiles (B), floating cells (C), and annexin V-positive adherent cells (D) in cultures of MM cells infected by different KSHV recombinant viruses. (E–G) Cell growth (E), annexin V-positive adherent cells (F), and cell cycle profiles (G) of cultures of MM cells infected by the Mut virus complemented by individual KSHV pre-miRs (MutKi), miR cluster (MutCl) or vector control (MutVt). Cell cycle and apoptosis were analyzed at day 5 post-seeding. All statistical analyses were performed by comparing other cells with the MutVt cells.</p

MiR-K1 targeting of IκBα is essential and sufficient for KSHV subversion of cell cycle and apoptosis pathways.

<p>(A) Expression of IκBα protein in cells with and without the expression of miR-K1 measured by Western-blotting. Cells analyzed were WT cells (WT), Mut cells (Mut), Rev cells (Rev), and Mut cells complemented with miR-K1 (MutK1), miR cluster (MutCl and vector control (MutVt). (B) Sequence alignment of miR-K1 with rat IκBα 3′UTR WT reporter and its mutant reporter containing a mutation in the putative miR-K1 targeting site, and the corresponding human IκBα 3′UTR sequence. (C) Suppression of IκBα 3′UTR WT reporter activity but not its mutant reporter activity by KSHV miR-K1. 293 cells were cotransfected with the IκBα 3′UTR WT reporter or its mutant reporter together with a miR-K1 mimic or a scrambled control and a β-galatosidase expression construct for 48 h and measured for relative luciferase activities. (D) Derepression of the inhibitory effect of miR-K1 on IκBα 3′UTR WT reporter but not its mutant reporter in WT cells by a miR-K1 suppressor. (E-F) Cell cycle profiles (E) and apoptosis(F) in Mut cells, Mut cells complemented with miR-K1 or vector control with knock down of IκBα using a specific siRNA or a scrambled control. (G–I) Expression of IκBα in WT cells(G) is sufficient to cause a shift in cell cycle profile (H) or apoptosis rate (I) to that resembling Mut cells. Statistical analyses were performed by comparing other cells with Mut cells transfected with scrambled siRNA (E–F) or WT cells transfected with control vector (H–I).</p

Gene expression profiling analysis of KSHV miRs.

<p>(A) Unsupervised clustering of gene expression profiles of WT cells, and Mut cells complemented with the miR cluster (Cl) or individual pre-miRs (Ki). Note that the Mut cells condition was subtracted from all the MutKi cells to eliminate the effect of other unrelated viral genes (see <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003857#s4" target="_blank">Materials and Methods</a> for details). (B) Top 20 most enriched pathways in WT cells, and Mut cells complemented with the miR cluster or individual pre-miRs compared to Mut cells complemented with the vector control. The color scale represents the GSEA normalized enrichment score. The expression fold changes of all genes of these cells are in <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003857#ppat.1003857.s016" target="_blank">Table S5</a>. (C) Signature genes that are positively or negatively correlated with tumorigenicity identified by Anova. (D) Principle components (PCs) obtained from the expression data of MutKi cells and the corresponding percentages of explained expression variances. Note that >95% of expression variances of the 16,501 genes in MutKi cells can be explained using only 8 PCs. (E) Lasso fitting to determine the linear combinatory effect of individual pre-miRs to the overall expression pattern of Mut cells complemented with the miR cluster. The x-axis denotes the Lasso iteration and the y-axis represents the coefficients or predicted effects for each MutKi. The Lasso reached the converged predictions at the 30th iteration.</p

Top networks of signature genes associated with tumorigenicity induced by KSHV miRs.

<p>Top networks of signature genes associated with tumorigenicity induced by KSHV miRs.</p