Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision: Translating Research into the Rapid Expansion of Services in Kenya, 2008–2011

Zebedee Mwandi and colleagues discuss Kenya's scale-up of voluntary medical male circumcision services, highlighting government leadership, a clear implementation strategy, and program flexibility and innovation as keys to Kenya's success

Correction: Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in Malawi: Modeling the Impact and Cost of Focusing the Program by Client Age and Geography.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0156521.]

Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in Malawi: Modeling the Impact and Cost of Focusing the Program by Client Age and Geography

<div><p>Background</p><p>In 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended scaling up voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) in priority countries with high HIV prevalence and low male circumcision (MC) prevalence. According to the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), an estimated 5.8 million males had undergone VMMC by the end of 2013. Implementation experience has raised questions about the need to refocus VMMC programs on specific subpopulations for the greatest epidemiological impact and programmatic effectiveness. As Malawi prepared its national operational plan for VMMC, it sought to examine the impacts of focusing on specific subpopulations by age and region.</p><p>Methods</p><p>We used the Decision Makers’ Program Planning Toolkit, Version 2.0, to study the impact of scaling up VMMC to different target populations of Malawi. National MC prevalence by age group from the 2010 Demographic and Health Survey was scaled according to the MC prevalence for each district and then halved, to adjust for over-reporting of circumcision. In-country stakeholders advised a VMMC unit cost of $100, based on implementation experience. We derived a cost of$451 per patient-year for antiretroviral therapy from costs collected as part of a strategic planning exercise previously conducted in- country by UNAIDS.</p><p>Results</p><p>Over a fifteen-year period, circumcising males ages 10–29 would avert 75% of HIV infections, and circumcising males ages 10–34 would avert 88% of infections, compared to the current strategy of circumcising males ages 15–49. The Ministry of Health’s South West and South East health zones had the lowest cost per HIV infection averted. Moreover, VMMC met WHO’s definition of cost-effectiveness (that is, the cost per disability-adjusted life-year [DALY] saved was less than three times the per capita gross domestic product) in all health zones except Central East. Comparing urban versus rural areas in the country, we found that circumcising men in urban areas would be both cost-effective and cost-saving, with a VMMC cost per DALY saved of $120 USD and with 15 years of VMMC implementation resulting in lifetime HIV treatment costs savings of$331 million USD.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>Based on the age analyses and programmatic experience, Malawi’s VMMC operational plan focuses on males ages 10–34 in all districts in the South East and South West zones, as well as Lilongwe (an urban district in the Central zone). This plan covers 14 of the 28 districts in the country.</p></div

Impact and cost of VMMC scale-up by target age group, 2015–2029.

<p>Impact and cost of VMMC scale-up by target age group, 2015–2029.</p

Atropa belladonna L.

原著和名: ベラドンナ科名: ナス科 = Solanaceae採集地: 千葉県 千葉市 千葉大学 (下総 千葉市 千葉大学)採集日: 1963/8/7採集者: 萩庭丈壽整理番号: JH036908国立科学博物館整理番号: TNS-VS-98690

Male circumcision programmes in Kenya: lessons from the Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey 2007

OBJECTIVE: To provide guidance for male circumcision programmes in Kenya by estimating the population of uncircumcised men and investigating the association between circumcision and infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), with particular reference to uncircumcised, HIV-uninfected men. METHODS: Data on men aged 15 to 64 years were derived from the 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey, which involved interviews and blood collection to test for HIV and herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2). The prevalence of HIV infection and circumcision in Kenyan provinces was calculated and the demographic characteristics and sexual behaviour of circumcised and uncircumcised, HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected men were recorded. FINDINGS: The national prevalence of HIV infection in uncircumcised men was 13.2% (95% confidence interval, CI: 10.8-15.7) compared with 3.9% (95% CI: 3.3-4.5) among circumcised men. Nyanza province had the largest estimated number of uncircumcised, HIV-uninfected men (i.e. 601 709), followed by Rift Valley, Nairobi and Western Province, respectively, and most belonged to the Luo ethnic tribe. Of these men, 77.8% did not know their HIV status and 33.2% were HSV-2-positive. In addition, 65.3% had had unprotected sex with a partner of discordant or unknown HIV status in the past 12 months and only 14.7% consistently used condoms with their most recent partner. However, only 21.8% of the uncircumcised, HIV-uninfected men aged 15 to 19 years were sexually active. CONCLUSION: The Kenyan male circumcision strategy should focus on the provinces with the highest number of uncircumcised, HIV-uninfected men and target young men before or shortly after sexual debut

Discounted cost per HIV infection averted, by zone, 2015–2029.

<p>Error bars represent lower and upper uncertainty bounds as described in [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0156521#pone.0156521.ref017" target="_blank">17</a>].</p

Rollout of ShangRing circumcision with active surveillance for adverse events and monitoring for uptake in Kenya

Introduction: Since 2011, Kenya has been evaluating ShangRing device for use in its voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) program according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Compared to conventional surgical circumcision, the ShangRing procedure is shorter, does not require suturing and gives better cosmetic outcomes. After a pilot evaluation of ShangRing in 2011, Kenya conducted an active surveillance for adverse events associated with its use from 2016–2018 to further assess its safety, uptake and to identify any operational bottlenecks to its widespread use based on data from a larger pool of procedures in routine health care settings. Methods: From December 2017 to August 2018, HIV-negative VMMC clients aged 13 years or older seeking VMMC at six sites across five counties in Kenya were offered ShangRing under injectable local anesthetic as an alternative to conventional surgical circumcision. Providers described both procedures to clients before letting them make a choice. Outcome measures recorded for clients who chose ShangRing included the proportions who were clinically eligible, had successful device placement, experienced adverse events (AEs), or failed to return for device removal. Clients failing to return for follow up were sought through phone calls, text messages or home visits to ensure removal and complete information on adverse events. Results: Out of 3,692 eligible clients 1,079 (29.2%) chose ShangRing; of these, 11 (1.0%) were excluded due to ongoing clinical conditions, 17 (1.6%) underwent conventional surgery due to lack of appropriate device size at the time of the procedure, 97.3% (1051/1079) had ShangRing placement. Uptake of ShangRing varied from 11% to 97% across different sites. There was one severe AE, a failed ShangRing placement (0.1%) managed by conventional wound suturing, plus two moderate AEs (0.2%), post removal wound dehiscence and bleeding, that resolved without sequelae. The overall AE rate was 0.3%. All clients returned for device removal from fifth to eleventh day after placement. Conclusion: ShangRing circumcision is effective and safe in the Kenyan context but its uptake varies widely in different settings. It should be rolled out under programmatic implementation for eligible males to take advantage of its unique benefits and the freedom of choice beyond conventional surgical MMC. Public education on its availability and unique advantages is necessary to optimize its uptake and to actualize the benefit of its inclusion in VMMC programs

Making voluntary medical male circumcision services sustainable: Findings from Kenya's pilot models, baseline and year 1.

Voluntary medical male circumcision is a crucial HIV prevention program for men in sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya is one of the first countries to achieve high population coverage and seek to transition the program to a more sustainable structure designed to maintain coverage while making all aspects of service provision domestically owned and implemented. Using pre-defined metrics, we created and evaluated three models of circumcision service delivery (static, mobile and mixed) to identify which had potential for sustaining high circumcision coverage among 10-14-year-olds group, a historically high-demand and accessible age group, at the lowest possible cost. We implemented each model in two distinct geographic areas, one in Siaya and the other in Migori county, and assessed multiple aspects of each model's sustainability. These included numerical achievements against targets designed to reach 80% coverage over two years; quantitative expenditure outcomes including unit expenditure plus its primary drivers; and qualitative community perception of program quality and sustainability based on Likert scale. Outcome values at baseline were compared with those for year one of model implementation using bivariate linear regression, unpaired t-tests and Wilcoxon rank tests as appropriate. Across models, numerical target achievement ranged from 45-140%, with the mixed models performing best in both counties. Unit expenditures varied from approximately $57 in both countries at baseline to$44-$124 in year 1, with the lowest values in the mixed and static models. Mean key informant perception scores generally rose significantly from baseline to year 1, with a notable drop in the area of community engagement. Consistently low scores were in the aspects of domestic financing for service provision. Sustainability-focused circumcision service delivery models can successfully achieve target volumes at lower unit expenditures than existing models, but strategies for domestic financing remain a crucial challenge to address for long-term maintenance of the program