Corticofugal Modulation of Initial Neural Processing of Sound Information from the Ipsilateral Ear in the Mouse

Background: Cortical neurons implement a high frequency-specific modulation of subcortical nuclei that includes the cochlear nucleus. Anatomical studies show that corticofugal fibers terminating in the auditory thalamus and midbrain are mostly ipsilateral. Differently, corticofugal fibers terminating in the cochlear nucleus are bilateral, which fits to the needs of binaural hearing that improves hearing quality. This leads to our hypothesis that corticofugal modulation of initial neural processing of sound information from the contralateral and ipsilateral ears could be equivalent or coordinated at the first sound processing level. Methodology/Principal Findings: With the focal electrical stimulation of the auditory cortex and single unit recording, this study examined corticofugal modulation of the ipsilateral cochlear nucleus. The same methods and procedures as described in our previous study of corticofugal modulation of contralateral cochlear nucleus were employed simply for comparison. We found that focal electrical stimulation of cortical neurons induced substantial changes in the response magnitude, response latency and receptive field of ipsilateral cochlear nucleus neurons. Cortical stimulation facilitated auditory response and shortened the response latency of physiologically matched neurons whereas it inhibited auditory response and lengthened the response latency of unmatched neurons. Finally, cortical stimulation shifted the best frequencies of cochlear neurons towards those of stimulated cortical neurons

Comprehensive Evaluation of End-Point Free Energy Techniques in Carboxylated-Pillar[6]arene Host-guest Binding: III. Force-Field Comparison, Three-Trajectory Realization and Further Dielectric Augmentation

Host-guest binding, despite the relatively simple structural and chemical features of individual components, still poses a challenge in computational modelling. The problems lie in both the accuracy of the employed Hamiltonian (often fixed-charge force fields) and the exhaustiveness of conformational sampling. End-point free energy calculations as fast alternatives to rigorous but costly methods are widely applied in virtual screening in protein-ligand and host-guest systems. However, the extreme underperformance of standard end-point methods makes them practically useless. Modifications of the end-point procedure could bring these methods back to the pool of usable tools, e.g., regression considered in our previous work. In the current work, we explore a potentially promising modification, the three-trajectory realization of the end-point simulation protocol. The alteration couples the binding-induced structural reorganization into free energy estimation and suffers from dramatic fluctuations of internal energies in protein-ligand situations. Fortunately, the relatively small size of host-guest systems minimizes the magnitude of internal fluctuations and makes the three-trajectory realization practically suitable. Due to the incorporation of intra-molecular interactions in free energy estimation, a strong dependence on the force field parameters could be incurred. Thus, a term-specific investigation of transferable GAFF derivatives is presented, and noticeable differences in many aspects are identified between commonly applied GAFF and GAFF2. These force-field differences lead to different dynamic behaviors of the macrocyclic host, which ultimately would influence the end-point sampling and binding thermodynamics. Therefore, the three-trajectory end-point free energy calculations are performed with both GAFF versions to investigate the force-field dependent behavior of computed binding affinities. Also, due to the noticeable differences between host dynamics under GAFF and GAFF2, we add additional benchmarks of the single-trajectory end-point calculations. Numerical results suggest that the single-trajectory realization, regardless of the GAFF version, is still not useful in host-guest binding, although the prediction quality of the GAFF2 parameter set is slightly better than GAFF. As for the three-trajectory realization, the absolute values of computed binding thermodynamics exhibit pronounced force-field-dependent behaviors, which are less significant for ranking information. When only the ranks of binding affinities are pursued, the three-trajectory realization performs very well, comparable to and even better than the regressed PBSA_E scoring function and the dielectric-constant-variable regime. With the GAFF parameter set, the TIP3P water in explicit-solvent sampling and either PB or GB implicit-solvent model in free energy estimation, the predictive power of the three-trajectory realization in ranking calculations surpasses all existing end-point methods on this dataset. We further combine the three-trajectory realization with another promising modified end-point regime of varying the interior dielectric constant. The predicted binding affinities exhibit monotonic responses to the variation of the internal dielectric constant, but the deviations from experiment exhibit non-monotonic variations, which are related to the systematic overestimation of the binding strength under the original three-trajectory realization. By contrast, the combined regime does not incur sizable improvements for ranks, although for most systems the dielectric constant 2 seems to be the best option