Cicada parasitic moths from China (Lepidoptera: Epipyropidae): morphology, identity, biology, and biogeography

<p>Species of the family Epipyropidae are infrequently collected due to their ectoparasitic lifestyle and have therefore received little study. Based on our morphological and molecular analyses, all specimens found parasitizing different species of cicadas in China belong to one species, <i>Epipomponia nawai</i> (Dyar). The species <i>Epipomponia oncotympana</i> Yang (nom. invalid.) was found to be identical with <i>E. nawai</i>. The morphology of the egg, larva, pupa, and adult of <i>E. nawai</i> is described, including the ultrastructure of the egg and larva. Seven types of sensilla and their distribution pattern on the antennae of both females and males of <i>E. nawai</i> are examined using scanning electron microscopy, resulting in a better understanding of sexual dimorphism in this species. Population differentiation and phylogenetic relationships amongst populations of <i>E. nawai</i> occurring in China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan are analysed. The intraspecific genetic distances suggest a low genetic differentiation which is also consistent with the minor morphological variations. The biogeographic analysis reveals that the Qinling Mountain Range, which is geographically the border of the subtropical and temperate zones, is presumably one of the most important geographic barriers to the gene flow of <i>E. nawai</i>. Our molecular phylogenetic analysis based on the <i>COI</i> gene of <i>E. nawai</i> indicates that frequent gene flow might have occurred in the China mainland, Taiwan and Japan islands, and possibly also the Ryukyu Islands after the Quaternary ice ages. In addition, the biology and behaviour of both larvae and adults of <i>E. nawai</i> were also observed, and results indicate the possibility of bisexual reproduction in this moth. Our results increase the understanding of the morphology, diversity, distribution, and biology of this unusual moth, and should aid future studies on patterns of population differentiation, biogeography, and reproductive behaviour in other epipyropids.</p

DataSheet_1_An evaluation of Astragali Radix with different growth patterns and years, based on a new multidimensional comparison method.docx

IntroductionWith the depletion of wild Astragali Radix (WA) resources, imitated-wild Astragali Radix (IWA) and cultivated Astragali Radix (CA) have become the main products of Astragali Radix. However, the quality differences of three growth patterns (WA, IWA, CA) and different growth years of Astragali Radix have not been fully characterized, leading to a lack of necessary scientific evidence for their use as substitutes for WA.MethodsWe innovatively proposed a multidimensional evaluation method that encompassed traits, microstructure, cell wall components, saccharides, and pharmacodynamic compounds, to comprehensively explain the quality variances among different growth patterns and years of Astragali Radix.Results and discussionOur study showed that the quality of IWA and WA was comparatively similar, including evaluation indicators such as apparent color, sectional structure and odor, thickness of phellem, diameter and number of vessels, morphology of phloem and xylem, and the levels and ratios of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, sucrose, starch, water-soluble polysaccharides, total-saponins. However, the content of sucrose, starch and sorbose in CA was significantly higher than WA, and the diameter and number of vessels, total-flavonoids content were lower than WA, indicating significant quality differences between CA and WA. Hence, we suggest that IWA should be used as a substitute for WA instead of CA. As for the planting years of IWA, our results indicated that IWA aged 1-32 years could be divided into three stages according to their quality change: rapid growth period (1-5 years), stable growth period (6-20 years), and elderly growth period (25-32 years). Among these, 6-20 years old IWA exhibited consistent multidimensional comparative results, showcasing elevated levels of key active components such as water-soluble polysaccharides, flavonoids, and saponins. Considering both the quality and cultivation expenses of IWA, we recommend a cultivation duration of 6-8 years for growers. In conclusion, we established a novel multidimensional evaluation method to systematically characterize the quality of Astragali Radix, and provided a new scientific perspective for the artificial cultivation and quality assurance of Astragali Radix.</p