Hope and Society

Hope is a subjective representation that is wanted as something desirable in the future. Hope can be categorized according to factors such as achievability and sociality. In a Japanese nationwide questionnaire of approximately 2,000 people in their 20s to 50s, conducted in 2006, about 80% of respondents said they had some type of hope and 60% said that they believed their hope was attainable. The largest number of respondents described hopes regarding work, far outnumbering those who suggested hopes regarding family, health or leisure. Hope that is considered attainable is strongly defined by three social factors. This makes it possible to explain why a loss of hope spread between the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s. First, hope is influenced by the degree of choices available, which depends on affluence. Analyses have shown that people who are elderly and perceive their remaining time as limited, and those who have been marginalized in education and/or employment and/or who have low income and/or poor health, are more likely to report an absence of hope. Social changes, such as the falling birthrate, increase in low income population or unemployment, worsening health conditions and stagnating school advancement rates, have led to a rise in the percentage of people who lack hope. Secondly, hope is influenced by interpersonal relations based on exchanges with others, such as family members and friends. Individuals who grew up in an environment where they experienced expectations and confidence from their family are more likely to report having hope. Individuals with an awareness of having many friends are more likely to have hope. Further, those who interact with friends outside of work colleagues and family members are more likely to have hope regarding their work. Thus, friends have a great deal to do with the generation of hope not only quantitatively but qualitatively as well. The spread of loneliness among the Japanese population as a whole, symbolized by unstable family relations, bullying, social reclusiveness, NEETs, and the solitary death of senior citizens, has accelerated the spread of a loss of hope. In addition to economic and sociologic factors, we must focus on the narrative structure of society, which is believed to be necessary for facing an uncertain future, as a 2 social facet of hope. Statistical analyses show that individuals who have experienced setbacks that forced them to modify their hopes, and who, with the background of having overcome such obstacles, do not hesitate to make apparently vain efforts, are more likely to have attainable hopes. If the society in story consists mainly of people who have had such experiences and or who have such characteristics, people are more likely to have hope. We also need to have foresight about the direction of society beyond simply acceleration and efficiency, while being expected to make strategic judgments to avoid failures and to use non-wasteful problem-solving thought. Social circumstances in which there is no shared new value in story to provide such foresight can also contribute to an expansion of the loss of hope.

Does downsizing take a toll on retained staff? An analysis of increased working hours during recessions using Japanese micro data

Using official household micro data from the Labour Force Survey, this paper examines the increase in the working hours of regular male employees in Japan under recession from the late 1990s to the early 2000s. The most important findings of this paper are that working hours tended to be longer among male regular employees of firms in which (1) there was major employment adjustment, (2) substantial increase in proportion of non-regular workers, and (3) wide variance in regular wages. The results suggest that the existence of a large amount of fixed duties that are necessary to maintain internal organization and transition from the traditional employment system are the main factors that explain the increase in the working hours during the recession in Japan.

Long-Term Effects of a Recession at Labor Market Entry in Japan and the United States

This paper examines effects of entering the labor market during a recession on subsequent earnings and employment for Japanese and American men, using comparable household labor force surveys. Previous analyses focus on search theoretic and implicit-contract arguments, which have their strongest effects on more educated workers. The authors argue that, in a country like Japan which has a dual labor market, there is an additional mechanism that affects mainly less educated workers. Namely, these workers are more likely to be trapped in the secondary sector if they graduate during a recession. We find a persistent, strong negative effect on earnings for less educated Japanese men, in contrast to no long-term effect for less educated American men; also, a substantial part of the effect for less educated Japanese men is attributed to the decreased probability of regular employment. The effect for the more educated group is more or less similar in both countries

GROSS JOB CREATION AND DESTRUCTION, AND LABOR MOBILITY IN JAPAN

This　paper　examines　job　gains　and　losses　at　establishment　levels　using　micro－data　in　Japan from　1985　to　1992．　Among　total　separations　from　establishments，　about　14　percent　of　them　was　at least　due　to　job　destruction．　By　enterprise　size，　large　firms　with　10000r　more　employees frequently　reallocated　employment　across　establishments　when　jobs　were　destructed．　Separations by　job　destruction　were　not　observed　in　large　firms．　In　small　enterprises　with　5－29　employees， about　30　percent　of　separations　was　generated　by　job　destruction．　About　a　half　of　gross　job creation　in　total　economy　was　generated　within　enterprises　with　less　than　100　employees． Because　of　high　gross　job　destruction　as　well　as　high　gfoss　job　creation　of　smaU　firms，　however， there　was　no　strong　pattern　of　net　job　creation　rates　by　enterprise　size．　The　job　destruction　rate by　death　of　fifms　was　low，　and　it　might　contribute　to　the　low　unemployment　rate　in　Japan

Bonus and Employment in Small Firms : Reconsideration of Share Economy

As　one　reason　for　the　low　unemployment　rate　after　oil　shocks　in　Japan，　the　structual differences　in　earnings　by　enterprise　size　are　considered．　During　the　1970s　and　1980s， Japanese　small　firms　had　relatively　large　labor　demand．　This　is　because　the　bonus payments　in　these　flrms　were　more　likely　to　be　in　form　of　profit　sharing．　Empirical　tests show　that　in　Japanese　small　manufacturing　firms　bonus　payments　had　been　determined differently　from　monthly　wage　payments，　In　particular，　almost　the　half　proportion　of　the bonus　payment　was　the　profit　sharing　segment　there

The Japanese Labour Market during the Global Financial Crisis and the Role of Non-Standard Work: A Micro Perspective

This paper analyses aggregate labour dynamics during the global financial crisis in Japan and the role of nonstandard work using micro data. The analysis proceeds in two steps. First, using comprehensive establishment-level datasets for the period 1991-2009, it provides a detailed portrait of the adjustment behaviour of establishments at the micro level. Second, it compares aggregate labour market dynamics during the global financial crisis with that observed during the 1997 crisis and decomposes the observed differences into components that can be attributed to changes in the micro-adjustment behaviour of Japanese establishments, changes in the incidence of non-standard work and changes in the distribution of shocks across establishments. It finds that the incidence of non-standard work has increased considerably, worker turnover is much higher among non-standard than standard workers and adjustments in working-time are less important for non-standard workers. Counterfactual simulations suggest that the employment response during the global crisis would have been smaller if the incidence of non-standard work remained at the level observed during the 1997 crisis. The relatively small employment response observed during the global financial crisis is therefore driven by factors others than the increase in the incidence of non-standard work

Skill Premiums and Japan\u27s Wage Structure in the 1980s

In　the　l980s　the　wage　structure　of　Japan　was　quite　stable　relatively　to　the　other developed　countries．　This　paper　examines　changes　in　skill　premiums　attributable　to　tenure and　other　dimensions．　Then　three　facts　are　found　about　Japan’s　wage　structure　changes　in the　1980s． 　　　First，　changes　in　returns　to　tenure　contributed　to　moderating　wage　dispersion　between and　within　groups　distinguished　by　age，　education　level，　and　firm　size．　In　the　groups　which expanded　in　number　for　a　period　of　1978－1990　they　tended　to　lessen　the　tenure　returns largely． 　　　Secondly，　changes　in　the　distributions　of　tenure　within　groups　have　increased　the　age　and firm　size　wage　differentials　and　have　decreased　the　college　wage　premium．　It　is　notable　that the　age　wage　differential　among　high　school　graduates　in　particular　has　grown　through　these changes． 　　　　Thirdly，　changes　in　returns　to　characteristics　other　than　tenure　have　proved　to　be effective　on　increasing　the　education　level　and　firm　size　wage　differentials　and　on　abating the　age　wage　differential．　Apart　from　tenure　effects，　the　product　demand　shift　hypothesis was　consistent　with　the　changes　in　the　age　and　education　level　wage　differentials　during　the l980s．　Shifts　in　industry　rents　en且arged　the　firm　size　wage　differential