The effects of resistant starch and whole grains on appetite, food intake and metabolic response.

With the rise in obesity, there has been an increased interest in foods which may beneficially affect appetite. Resistant starch (RS) and whole grains (of which RS is a main dietary fibre component) have been proposed to affect satiety and therefore may be beneficial in weight management. There is little direct evidence confirming this in humans. Whilst animal data suggest a positive effect of RS on appetite, the few existing human intervention studies provide inconsistent findings. For whole grains the majority of evidence is from epidemiological work as opposed to intervention studies. Therefore a series of studies was conducted to investigate effects of RS and whole grains on appetite and food intake. Two studies were conducted using RS. The first investigated the acute (24 hours) effects of 48 g RS in healthy adult males compared with an energy and available carbohydrate matched placebo. Following RS there was a significantly lower energy intake compared with placebo. There was also a significantly lower postprandial insulin response with RS, possibly explained by increased hepatic insulin clearance determined by a higher C-peptide to insulin ratio. In the second study 40 g RS consumed daily for 4 weeks was compared with the placebo, in overweight and obese participants. Effects on food intake were assessed and a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (FSIVGTT) was conducted. This study found no effect on either appetite or energy intake, but did find significantly higher glucose, insulin and C-peptide concentrations, measured during the FSIVGTT, with the RS compared with the placebo, possibly explained by an improved first-phase insulin response. This finding did not translate into differences in parameters obtained from modelling the FSIVGTT data, but this and the lack of appetite and food intake differences could be explained by the small participant numbers. Two intervention studies were conducted with whole grains incorporated into bread rolls. The first, a crossover study, involved 3 weeks' daily consumption of 48 g milled whole grain or control, in young healthy adults. Whilst no significant difference was found between interventions in energy intake or subjective appetite ratings, a significantly lower systolic blood pressure was observed with the milled whole grains. The second was an 8 week parallel study (48 g intact or 48 g milled whole grains or control) in overweight and obese adults. No significant difference was found between groups on energy intake, subjective appetite ratings, cholesterol or postprandial metabolite concentrations. RS appears to be a possible satiating ingredient when consumed acutely and, whilst this was not confirmed in our chronic study, effects may have been masked by small participant numbers. A novel finding from our RS studies was an effect on the insulin response. These studies suggest that RS could have a beneficial role in weight management and favourable metabolic effects. Our whole grain interventions appear not to agree with epidemiological work that suggests a beneficial role on appetite, but there maybe effects on blood pressure regulation. In all instances further investigations are required in other population groups, with more participants and for longer time periods

Correlation dependent balanced estimation of diffusion entropies for all the segments.

<p>(a)-(g) the segments from <i>seg</i>01 to <i>seg</i>69. Except few segments such as the segment numbered <i>seg</i>08 (red open circles in (a)), all the curves show almost a perfect linear relation of versus <i>lns</i> in a wide range of scale. For some segments the scale range can reach of the length. The values of slope are all calculated in the scale range of [<i>e</i>⁰, <i>e</i>^4.1], covering about of the length. As for the segment numbered <i>seg</i>08, the scale range is selected to be [<i>e</i>⁰, <i>e</i>^3.3], covering about of the length. The curves are vertically shifted for visual convenience.</p

Scaling behaviors of the total, X-part and E-part series.

<p>(a) Correlation dependent balanced estimation of diffusion entropies. The scaling exponents for the three series are undistinguishable. (b) Power spectra for the three series. The estimated values of <i>β</i> are very close with that of 2<i>δ</i> − 1, respectively. The curves are vertically shifted for visual convenience.</p

Evolution of scaling invariance.

<p>With the increase of the segment number, the scaling exponent changes abruptly in a wide interval of [0.43, 0.75]. Let a window covering 5 scaling exponents slide along the curve, and replace each value at the center of the window with the average of the covered scaling exponents. This smoothing procedure results in the smoothing curve (the red curve). When the segment number becomes larger than 47 (from then on the segments belong to the E-part), the smoothing curve has a <i>U</i>-shape with a wide bottom. In the E-part, the curve contains rich patterns, and the scaling exponents are comparatively larger.</p

Labeling of important atoms of acetaminophen and the heme cluster.

<p>Labeling of important atoms of acetaminophen and the heme cluster.</p

APAP-CYPs regioselectivity determined by experimental data and calculation.

#<p>Empirical TS barrier different refers to the estimated energy difference between <i>N-</i>oxidation and 3<i>-C</i>-hydroxylation from CYP2A6 study.</p>*<p>Both S2 and S3 could lead to 3-OH-APAP. NAPQI could be slightly favored product.</p

Schematic representation of acetaminophen metabolism by cytochrome P450s.

<p>Schematic representation of acetaminophen metabolism by cytochrome P450s.</p

Free energy profiles for CYP-APAP binding.

<p>(a) CYP3A4, (b) CYP2E1, (c) CYP2A6, (d) CYP1A2, (e) CYP2C9. Topography energy legend with energy values (kcal/mol) represented by defined color is given in (f). Binding states, S1, S2, S3, S1r and SD are labeled. For CYP2E1, CYP2A6, and CYP1A2, the binding states are clearly defined as energy basins. For CYP3A4 and CYP2C9 where the energy landscape is relatively flat, energy profiles with more color layers are given Figure S4 in Figure S1.</p

Active site snapshots of CYP2C9-APAP.

<p>(a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3, (d) SD states.</p

Additional file 1 of Effects of finerenone and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists on cardiovascular and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Supplementary Material