Anatomical variations in the origin of the iliacofemoral artery.

<p>(<b>A</b>) A schema of the anatomical variations in the iliacofemoral artery. In most limbs (10 out of 11), the iliacofemoral artery arose from the dorsal side of the origin of the internal iliac artery (circled <b><i>a</i></b>). In only 1 limb, the iliacofemoral artery emerged as a branch of the internal iliac artery (circled <b><i>b</i></b>). (<b>B</b>) An image of the variation <b><i>a</i></b>. The iliacofemoral artery arises from the common iliac artery, dorsal to the internal iliac artery. (<b>C</b>) An image of variation <b><i>b</i></b>. The internal iliac artery gives off the iliacofemoral artery instead of the common iliac artery. Additionally, the proximal caudal femoral artery and the superficial caudal epigastric artery arises from a short common trunk (* in B) in about half the limbs (5/11), while they arise separately (** in C) in the other half (6/11). (Ao) aorta, (CaGA) caudal gluteal artery, (CIA) common iliac artery, (CrGA) cranial gluteal artery, (DFA) deep femoral artery, (FA) femoral artery, (IFA) iliacofemoral artery, (IIA) internal iliac artery, (LCFA) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (PCFA) proximal caudal femoral artery, (PET) pudendoepigastric trunk, (SCEA) superficial caudal epigastric artery.</p

Anatomical variations in the origin of the deep femoral artery.

<p>(<b>A</b>) Schema of anatomical variations in the deep femoral artery. The deep femoral artery arises in a variable manner. In about half (5/11) of the limbs the deep femoral artery springs from the internal iliac artery (variation <b><i>a</i></b>). The other variations had origins of the deep femoral artery from the external iliac artery (variation <b><i>b</i></b>), pudendoepigastric trunk (variation <b><i>c</i></b>), and the femoral artery (variation <b><i>d</i></b>), in 2 out of 11 limbs each. (<b>B</b>) An image of the variation <b><i>a</i></b>. The internal iliac artery is giving off the deep femoral artery. (<b>C</b>) An image of variation <b><i>b</i></b>. The deep femoral artery arises from the medial-dorsal surface of the external iliac artery, just proximal to the pudendoepigastric trunk. (<b>D</b>) An image of the variation <b><i>c</i></b>. The external obturator muscle and adductor muscles are lifted up. The deep femoral artery arises as a branch of the pudendoepigastric trunk. (<b>E</b>) An image of variation <b><i>d</i></b>. The deep femoral artery arises from the femoral artery, distal to the pudendoepigastric trunk and inguinal ligament. Circled <b><i>a</i></b>, <b><i>b</i></b>, <b><i>c</i></b>, and <b><i>d</i></b> indicate the originating points of the deep femoral artery in variations <b><i>a</i></b>, <b><i>b</i></b>, <b><i>c</i></b> and <b><i>d</i></b>, respectively. (Ad) adductor muscles, (Ao) aorta, (AW) abdominal wall, (CaGA) caudal gluteal artery, (CEA) caudal epigastric artery, (CIA) common iliac artery, (CrGA) cranial gluteal artery, (DFA) deep femoral artery, (EIA) external iliac artery, (EO) external obturator muscle, (EPA) external pudendal artery, (FA) femoral artery, (IFA) iliacofemoral artery, (IIA) internal iliac artery, (IL) inguinal ligament, (LCFA) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (ObA) obturator artery, (PET) pudendoepigastric trunk.</p

Dissection of the medial-superficial hindlimb.

<p>(<b>A</b>) After removal of the skin. A large part of the femoral artery is hidden by the inguinal fat tissue and overhanging abdomen. (<b>B</b>) After removal of the pelvic organs, fat tissue, and veins. The iliac artery and the entire femoral artery are exposed. Arteries distributed into the adductor muscles and medial hamstring muscles at mid (12) and distal portion (arrowheads) can also be seen. A minor branch to the medial thigh muscles can be observed but the nutrient vessels to muscles in the thigh and the popliteal artery cannot be seen in this view. (<b>C</b>) Parts of the iliopsoas muscle, quadriceps femoris muscle, and the adductor muscles are dissected (arrows) to expose the iliacofemoral artery (15), lateral circumflex femoral artery (17), and the popliteal artery (19). There are three feeding arteries to the quadriceps femoris muscle in this view; the iliacofemoral artery proximally, the medial proximal genicular artery distally, and the lateral circumflex femoral artery centrally. (1) femoral artery, (2) saphenous artery, (3) aorta, (4) caudal mesenteric artery, (5) common iliac artery, (6) cranial gluteal artery, (7) internal iliac artery, (8) external iliac artery, (9) pudendoepigastric trunk, (10) caudal epigastric artery, (11) external pudendal artery, (12) proximal caudal femoral artery, (13) superficial caudal epigastric artery, (14) illiolumbar artery, (15) iliacofemoral artery, (16) caudal gluteal artery, (17) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (18) medial proximal genicular artery, (19) popliteal artery, (20) median coccygeal artery, (Ad) adductor muscles, (AW) abdominal wall, (FN) femoral nerve, (IFT) inguinal fat tissue, (IL) inguinal ligament, (MH) medial hamstring muscles, (Ps) iliopsoas muscle, (QF) quadriceps femoris muscle, (SiLN) subiliac lymph node, (TFL) tensor fascia lata muscle.</p

Schema of arterial anatomy in the hindlimb.

<p>Simplified developed illustration of the hindlimb arterial anatomy. When the femoral artery or iliac artery is obstructed, there are three, presumable collateral, routes through intramuscular networks in the quadriceps femoris muscle, biceps femoris muscle and the medial thigh muscles, including the medial hamstring muscles and adductor muscles. Moreover, it is noteworthy that the lateral circumflex femoral artery and the proximal caudal femoral artery locate at the central portion of the quadriceps femoris muscle and medial thigh muscles. (CaGA) caudal gluteal artery, (CEA) caudal epigastric artery, (CIA) common iliac artery, (CrGA) cranial gluteal artery, (DCFA) distal caudal femoral artery, (DFA) deep femoral artery, (EPA) external pudendal artery, (FA) femoral artery, (IFA) iliacofemoral artery, (IIA) internal iliac artery, (LCFA) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (ObA) obturator artery, (PA) popliteal artery, (PCFA) proximal caudal femoral artery, (PET) pudendoepigastric trunk, (SA) saphenous artery, (SCEA) superficial caudal epigastric artery.</p

Dissection of the medial-deep hindlimb.

<p>(<b>A</b>) Superficial layer of the adductor muscles is removed. The deep femoral artery running distally and sending branches to the external obturator muscle, adductor muscles, and medial hamstring muscles can be seen (5). (<b>B</b>) Enlarged view of A. The external obturator muscle is divided from the pubis to expose the obturator artery (12). (<b>C</b>) Vascular networks in the quadriceps femoris muscle, medial hamstring muscles, and adductor muscles can be seen through the muscles (arrowheads). (1) common iliac artery, (2) internal iliac artery, (3) iliacofemoral artery, (4) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (5) deep femoral artery, (6) proximal caudal femoral artery, (7) superficial caudal epigastric artery, (8) medial proximal genicular artery, (9) popliteal artery, (10) saphenous artery, (11) external pudendal artery, (12) obturator artery, (Ad(d)) deep layer of adductor muscles, (EO) external obturator muscle, (MH) medial hamstring muscles, (QF) quadriceps femoris muscle.</p

Anatomical variations in the origin of the caudal gluteal artery.

<p>(<b>A</b>) A schema of anatomical variations in the caudal gluteal artery. Three variations (variation <b><i>a</i></b>, <b><i>b</i></b>, and <b><i>c</i></b>) in the origin of the caudal gluteal artery were observed. The originating points of the caudal gluteal artery are marked by circles <b><i>a</i></b>, <b><i>b</i></b>, and <b><i>c</i></b>, respectively. Variation <b><i>a</i></b> have been observed in two limbs while <b><i>b</i></b> in four, and <b><i>c</i></b> in five. (<b>B</b>) An image of the variation <b><i>a</i></b>. The caudal gluteal artery arose from the common iliac artery, just proximal to the internal iliac artery. (<b>C</b>) An image of the variation <b><i>b</i></b> on the right, and <b><i>c</i></b> left side. On the right side, the caudal gluteal artery arises from the medial-dorsal side of the origin of the internal iliac artery, while it arises from the internal iliac artery on the left side. (Ao) aorta, (CaGA) caudal gluteal artery, (CIA) common iliac artery, (CrGA) cranial gluteal artery, (DFA) deep femoral artery, (EPA) external pudendal artery, (FA) femoral artery, (IFA) iliacofemoral artery, (IIA) internal iliac artery, (IL) inguinal ligament, (LCFA) lateral circumflex femoral artery, (PET) pudendoepigastric trunk.</p

Dissection of the lateral hindlimb.

<p>(<b>A</b>) After removal of the skin. No large artery can be observed in this view. (<b>B</b>) Distal and cranial ends of the biceps femoris muscle are divided. Feeding arteries for the biceps femoris muscle from the cranial and caudal gluteal arteries are seen in the proximal region (6, 7). Near to the knee, the popliteal artery (5) sends branches to the distal portion of the quadriceps femoris muscle and the biceps femoris muscle (4, 9). (<b>C</b>) The distal and caudal margin of the biceps femoris muscle are divided. The terminal branches of the deep femoral artery reach the biceps femoris muscle through the medial hamstring muscles (10). The vascular network in the biceps femoris muscle can be seen in B and C (arrowheads). (1) lateral saphenous vein, (2) iscial vein, (3) iliacofemoral artery, (4) lateral proximal genicular artery, (5) popliteal artery, (6) cranial gluteal artery, (7) caudal gluteal artery, (8) distal caudal femoral artery, (9) branches to distal part of the biceps femoris muscle, (10) terminal branches of the deep femoral artery, (BF) biceps femoris muscle, (GM) gluteal muscles, (MH) medial hamstring muscles, (QF) quadriceps femoris muscle, (ScN) sciatic nerve.</p

Tactile stimulation threshold (g) measured using the Semmes–Weinstein monofilament device for subjective evaluation.

No significant difference was found for any measuring point between the groups: U, upper; L, lower.</p

Results obtained for latency of SEFs using multiple linear regression analysis.

Results obtained for latency of SEFs using multiple linear regression analysis.</p

Results obtained for intensity of SEFs using multiple linear regression analysis.

Results obtained for intensity of SEFs using multiple linear regression analysis.</p