Mitigating the environmental impacts of animal production on climate change – challenges and oppurtinities in the tropics

Production of meat and milk is not only resource intensive, but incur significant environmental cost as well. Even though ruminants are capable of converting poor quality feeds to high quality proteins for human consumption, the rumen and enteric digestion is responsible for 15-20 % of total green house gas emissions on the planet. This is inevitable as one of the major green house gas, methane, is released during microbial-assisted digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract. In fact, calculation has shown that every 1 % increase in Malaysia’s beef self sufficiency would have resulted in the increase of 2.6 million tonnes of methane emission annually. As a matter of fact, producing a kilogram of beef would result in the emission of 1.5 kg of methane, 1 kg of mutton produces 0.75 kg of methane, while a kilogram of pork and poultry resulted in 0.27 kg and 0.20 kg of methane, respectively. It is known that a cow produces between 70-120 kg methane a year, or equivalent to about 2300 kg CO2 in terms of heat trapping ability. This is equivalent to output from a car driven for 15000 km/year. In view of the significant environmental impact of animal production, it is crucial to balance the public’s continual access to affordable animal proteins, with the environmental sustainability of animal agriculture. The current article examined the options available to animal productionists in the tropics, especially with regards to the ability of plant polyphenols in reducing methane emissions in livestock. The current work also looked at how climate change affects the re-distribution of land, water and other resources available for animal agriculture. This is inevitable as land areas traditionally associated with food production in North America, Asia and South America are expected to experience warmer temperatures, as well as harsher and dryer climate that may no longer conducive for growing plants and raising animals. It is hoped that this article would lead to a re-think on the best and sustainable way to produce animal protein, while minimising environmental impacts of animal agriculture for our future generations

Correlation of radiographic and echocardiographic findings with clinical outcome in canine heart patients

Thoracic radiography and echocardiography are two of the most important diagnostic tools for structural heart diseases. In canine heart disease cases, both severity grade and prognosis of the case are equally important for the clinicians and owners to decide on treatment options for the dog. Forty-two canine heart patients with complete history, clinical signs, follow up details, complete radiography records and echocardiography recordings were included in this study. The forty-two dogs were free of liver, kidney and lung diseases. Data was tabulated in SPSS 16.0 software and was analyzed using Kaplan-Meier Survival Analysis technique to determine the median survival duration of canine heart patients according to severity classification based on radiographic findings and severity classification based on echocardiographic findings. The medical effects of furosemide, benazepril and pimobendan were also studied by comparison of median survival duration between the group treated with the particular medication and the group not treated with the particular medication. Kaplan Meier Survival Analysis showed that the median survival durations in canine heart patients classified by severity of radiographic findings are 449±42 days in heart patients with severe radiographic findings, 530±175 days in heart patients with moderate radiographic findings and 549±173 days in heart patients with mild radiographic findings. Meanwhile, canine heart patients with severe echocardiographic findings have median survival duration of 449±3.3 days compared to 515±189 days in cases with mild echocardiographic findings. Kappa’s test of agreement showed moderate degree of agreement between severity classification based on radiographic and echocardiographic findings with a kappa value of 0.60 (p=0.003). Median survival duration of canine heart patients undergone medical intervention was markedly longer than canine heart patients without medical intervention

In vitro equine caecal fermentation characteristics of oil palm fronds

Horses are non-ruminant herbivores that require forage in their diet. They depend on the microbial digestion in the caecum for nutritional needs. Therefore it is imperative that equine feeds have the necessary characteristics that promote healthy caecal digestion and fulfill the equine nutrition needs at a reasonable cost. Currently, the available equine feeds are costly. Oil palm fronds (OPF), being readily available locally and cheaper, is a good candidate to be considered for inclusion in equine feed formulation. Extensive studies on OPF as ruminant roughage has been carried out but there is scarce information on OPF utilization in the equine feed. The aims of this study were to investigate the dry matter (DM) digestibility of OPF in caecal content derived from horses based on the volatile fatty acids (VFA) production, protein digestion, total gas production and caecal pH changes in an in vitro model. Caecal content from a euthanised horse was used to digest the dried feed samples over 24 hours in a closed system syringes. Eight feed samples comprising oil palm fronds (OPF), alfalfa (Medicagomerata) hay, timothy (Phleumpratense) hay, oaten chaffs, grains mixture and premix pellets: concentrate J (Equi-Jewel®), concentrate L (PegasusTM), concentrate P (PegasusTM) and concentrate S (Mitavite®) were used. The products of digestion measured were gas production and DM disappearance to determine the fermentability of feed, total VFA concentration as it is a portion of energy source, pH changes which affect the gastrointestinal flora habitat and ammonia nitrogen concentration to indicate protein digestion. Oil palm fronds had comparable (p>0.05) DM digestibility (30 ± 2.93%) to commercial feeds evaluated in this experiment. However, it had significantly (p<0.05) lower total VFA concentration (9.3 ± 0.67 mM), and greatest (51 ± 8.74 ppm) ammonia nitrogen concentration (p<0.05) vis-à-vis other diets in this trial. The OPF yielded higher acetic acid to propionic acid proportion consistent in horses fed mainly with forage diets. In addition to that, OPF showed significantly (p<0.05) better buffering ability (pH: 7.4 ± 0.03) to caecal content and least gas production (p<0.05). The in vitro model managed to mimic the cellulolytic digestion of an equine caecum, which is crucial to understand digestion dynamics of various feeds in the equine caecum. In summary, the OPF feed showed to be a low cost feed with suitable characteristics to be included in equine diet

Trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in milk, yogurt and cultured milk drink.

Biohydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids by the rumen microbes to saturated fatty acids yields intermediate products comprising of trans fatty acid (TFA) and conjugated linoleic acids (CLA). Trans fatty acids have been shown to be detrimental to human health whereas CLA has positive effects on human health. In view of the potential health effects of these fatty acids, the aims of this study were to determine the TFA and CLA levels of selected dairy products (milk, yogurt and cultured milk drink) in locally produced and imported dairy products accessible to the general Malaysian population. The subsequent objective is then to estimate the daily intake of TFA and CLA from these dairy products among local population. Fresh milk samples were obtained from the UPM dairy unit located within a 3 km distance from the analytical laboratory and commercial samples were purchased from local supermarkets. The samples consist of 21 milk samples, of which 12 are locally produced; 42 yoghurt samples, of which 18 are local products and 11 cultured milk samples of which 5 are local products. All samples were then subjected to total fatty acids extraction and their fatty acid composition determined using gas liquid chromatography. Results showed that local dairy products have less polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to imported products (P<0.05). However, among locally produced dairy products, yogurt contained the highest levels of TFA and CLA. This disparity in results could be attributed to the fact that both TFA and CLA contents in milk were under the influence of not only farm and animal factors, but could also be result of specific manufacturing processes. Findings of this study showed that continuous efforts have to be made to control the levels of TFA in our local dairy products, while enhancing the content of CLA in dairy products. The consumer should also be educated and be aware of the health benefits or detriments of CLA and TFA, respectively

Nutritional compositions and antioxidant activities of non-polar and polar extracts of germinated brown rice

The objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional compositions and antioxidant activities (AA) of non-polar and polar extracts of germinated brown rice (GBR). Nutritional compositions such as moisture, ash, carbohydrate, fat, protein and fibre were determined. Energy and minerals content were determined by using bomb calorimetry and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), respectively. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of the extracts were determined by Folin-Ciocalteu method and aluminium chloride colorimetric method. The AA was determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and [2,2′-Azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] diammonium salt (ABTS) radical scavenging capacity assay, ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assay, and β-carotene bleaching assay. Total energy content of GBR sample was 390.95±11.31 kcal/100g and carbohydrate (54.30±1.04 g/100 g) was the most abundant nutrient. The predominant minerals in the GBR sample were sodium, potassium and magnesium. The polar extract showed significantly higher (p0.90, p<0.001) existed between antioxidants (TPC and TFC) and AA. Therefore, polar extract was better than non-polar extract. The nutritional composition of GBR also provided an update for food composition database

Dietary Manipulations Using Oil Palm (Elaeis Guineensis) Fronds to Increase the Unsaturated Fatty Acid Content Of Mutton under Tropical Conditions

Forty-three seven-month old Barbados Black Belly x Malin crossbred rams were used for the first trial which lasted 14 weeks, inclusive of two weeks of adjustment period. They were allotted into three treatment groups fed varying levels of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) frond pellets and commercial sheep pellets. Treatment diets were 80% commercial pellet + 20% (% w/w) oil palm frond pellet (CON group, n=15), 50% commercial pellet + 50% oil palm frond pellet (% w/w) (HAF group, n=14) and 80% oil palm frond pellet + 20% (% w/w) commercial pellet (OPF group, n=14). The total lipids were extracted using the Folch method and methylated using 14% methanolic Boron triflouride with a known added amount of heneicosanoic acid (21:0) as an internal standard. The fatty acid methyl esters were separated by capillary column gas liquid chromatography and the fatty acids quantitated as absolute amounts or as percentage of total fatty acids. The plasma and tissues of the CON animals had significantly (P<0.05) increased levels of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) at the end of the trial compared to their initial values and both HAF and OPF groups. The increase in the UFA content was mainly due to the increased monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content. The plasma and tissues of the HAF animals had the highest amount of saturated fatty acids (SFA) proportionately and in absolute amounts among the three treatment groups. The fatty acid unsaturation status of the plasma and tissues from the OPF animals was midway between those of the CON and HAF groups. All groups had low concentrations of EFA with unfavourable n-6:n-3 ratios. However, the CON animals had more (PHAF>CON at all time points. The rumen volatile fatty acids, ammonia nitrogen content, bacterial and protozoal counts were significantly different (P<0.05) between groups as well. The marked differences in the rumen conditions had resulted in the highest (P<0.05) amount of UFA present in the rumen of CON animals even after eight hours post-feeding. The UFA in the rumen contents of the CON animals (63.7 ± 6.1 mg/lOOmL) was two fold higher than those of HAF animals (31.9 ± 4.9 mg/100mL), and quadruple that of the OPF animals (12.1 ± 1.5 mg/1OOmL) at this point. Subsequently, this had led to the higher levels of UFA in the CON tissues and plasma as shown in the first trial. In the third trial, seventy-five individually housed male Sprague-Dawley rats aged between six to seven months were used. Fifteen rats were selected randomly and sacrificed to establish the initial baseline values for the serum lipids at the onset of the trial. The remaining 60 rats were allotted randomly into five groups of 12 animals each. Three groups were fed with meat pellets derived from the mutton in the first trial. One group was fed with meat pellets prepared from commercially available mutton whole carcass for comparison purposes, and another group fed with standard rat chow as control. Blood and arterial tissue samples were obtained from the euthanised rats. Sampling was done on four animals from each group sacrificed serially at two, four and six weeks after the onset of the trial. Results showed that the CON mutton increased the rat serum HDL-Cholesterol significantly (P<0.05) over those fed with the commercially available mutton. The serum HDLCholesterol levels in the CON mutton fed rats was 1.09 ± 0.31 mmol/L, while those fed commercially available mutton was 0.79 ± 0.10 mmol/L. The results on other serum lipids and arterial lesions were inconclusive. In summary, the dietary manipulations demonstrated the feasibility of increasing the mutton UFA content to a level that would promote healthy changes in the consumers' blood lipid profiles, using sheep reared under tropical conditions fed diets formulated from oil palm frond pellets and commercial concentrates

Effects of feeding time on adipocyte characteristics and fat metabolism in rats.

Effects of different feeding time (day vs night feeding) on the weight gain, adipocyte cellularity, plasma fatty acid profile and plasma leptin levels in rats were examined. Thirty male 8-week old Sprague Dawley rats were randomly allocated into day feeding group (DFG) as control, and night feeding group (NFG). They were fed 10% of their body weight with standard rat chow once a day. The DFG was fed at 0800h and NFG at 1900h. Both groups were exposed to 12:12 h light-dark cycle. Daily feed intake and weekly body weight were monitored. Five rats from each group were sacrificed at weeks 1, 3, 5 to collect blood for plasma fatty acids profiling and plasma leptin levels analysis. Abdominal fat were collected for adipocyte cellularity analysis where the number and diameter of fat cells were measured. Weight gain, increment of adipocyte numbers and plasma leptin levels was significantly (P0.05) difference in feed intake, adipocyte diameter and plasma fatty acids profile in both groups. Clearly, night feeding has an effect on fat metabolism and deposition where more adipose mass are accumulated which leads to more weight gain in rats. In summary, although nutrient absorption and mobilization was not affected by feeding time of the day, night feeding promoted the accumulation of more fat mass

Dietary Manipulations Using Oil Palm (Elaeis Guineensis) Fronds to Increase the Unsaturated Fatty Acid Content Of Mutton under Tropical Conditions

Forty-three seven-month old Barbados Black Belly x Malin crossbred rams were used for the first trial which lasted 14 weeks, inclusive of two weeks of adjustment period. They were allotted into three treatment groups fed varying levels of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) frond pellets and commercial sheep pellets. Treatment diets were 80% commercial pellet + 20% (% w/w) oil palm frond pellet (CON group, n=15), 50% commercial pellet + 50% oil palm frond pellet (% w/w) (HAF group, n=14) and 80% oil palm frond pellet + 20% (% w/w) commercial pellet (OPF group, n=14). The total lipids were extracted using the Folch method and methylated using 14% methanolic Boron triflouride with a known added amount of heneicosanoic acid (21:0) as an internal standard. The fatty acid methyl esters were separated by capillary column gas liquid chromatography and the fatty acids quantitated as absolute amounts or as percentage of total fatty acids. The plasma and tissues of the CON animals had significantly (P<0.05) increased levels of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) at the end of the trial compared to their initial values and both HAF and OPF groups. The increase in the UFA content was mainly due to the increased monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content. The plasma and tissues of the HAF animals had the highest amount of saturated fatty acids (SFA) proportionately and in absolute amounts among the three treatment groups. The fatty acid unsaturation status of the plasma and tissues from the OPF animals was midway between those of the CON and HAF groups. All groups had low concentrations of EFA with unfavourable n-6:n-3 ratios. However, the CON animals had more (PHAF>CON at all time points. The rumen volatile fatty acids, ammonia nitrogen content, bacterial and protozoal counts were significantly different (P<0.05) between groups as well. The marked differences in the rumen conditions had resulted in the highest (P<0.05) amount of UFA present in the rumen of CON animals even after eight hours post-feeding. The UFA in the rumen contents of the CON animals (63.7 ± 6.1 mg/lOOmL) was two fold higher than those of HAF animals (31.9 ± 4.9 mg/100mL), and quadruple that of the OPF animals (12.1 ± 1.5 mg/1OOmL) at this point. Subsequently, this had led to the higher levels of UFA in the CON tissues and plasma as shown in the first trial. In the third trial, seventy-five individually housed male Sprague-Dawley rats aged between six to seven months were used. Fifteen rats were selected randomly and sacrificed to establish the initial baseline values for the serum lipids at the onset of the trial. The remaining 60 rats were allotted randomly into five groups of 12 animals each. Three groups were fed with meat pellets derived from the mutton in the first trial. One group was fed with meat pellets prepared from commercially available mutton whole carcass for comparison purposes, and another group fed with standard rat chow as control. Blood and arterial tissue samples were obtained from the euthanised rats. Sampling was done on four animals from each group sacrificed serially at two, four and six weeks after the onset of the trial. Results showed that the CON mutton increased the rat serum HDL-Cholesterol significantly (P<0.05) over those fed with the commercially available mutton. The serum HDLCholesterol levels in the CON mutton fed rats was 1.09 ± 0.31 mmol/L, while those fed commercially available mutton was 0.79 ± 0.10 mmol/L. The results on other serum lipids and arterial lesions were inconclusive. In summary, the dietary manipulations demonstrated the feasibility of increasing the mutton UFA content to a level that would promote healthy changes in the consumers' blood lipid profiles, using sheep reared under tropical conditions fed diets formulated from oil palm frond pellets and commercial concentrates

Effect of vitamin E, Andrographis paniculata and turmeric as dietary antioxidant supplementation on lipid and color stability of goat meat.

This study was carried out to determine the effects of dietary antioxidant supplementations of vitamin E, Andrographis paniculata Nees and Curcuma longa L. on lipid and color stability of chevon. Four dietary treatments of eight goats each were randomly assigned to basal diet 70% concentrate and 30% oil palm fronds (CN), CN + 400 mg/kg vitamin E (VE), 0.5% turmeric (TU) or 0.5% Andrographis paniculata (AP). After 14 weeks of feeding, the goats were slaughtered and goat meat was sampled, then vacuum- packaged and conditioned for three post mortem aging periods (0, 7 and 14 days) in a chiller (4 °C). Meat tenderness was improved (P < 0.05) at 14 days aging in biceps femoris (BF) muscle. All antioxidant supplements improved (P < 0.05) color of the meat. The supplementation of dietary antioxidants had significantly (P < 0.05) improved the L (lightness), a (redness), b (yellowness) as well as the chroma and hue angle values. Post mortem aging periods significantly (P < 0.05) influenced on redness, yellowness, chroma and hue angle. Similarly, the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value of the chevon was shown to be affected by the dietary supplementation of antioxidants. It is concluded that TU and AP are potential dietary antioxidant supplements like VE, for the purpose of color stability and preventing of lipid oxidation, particularly in post mortem aging periods of the biceps femoris muscle

Dietary Conjugated Linoleic Acid Alters Oxidative Stability and Alleviates Plasma Cholesterol Content in Meat of Broiler Chickens

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on fatty acid composition, lipoprotein content, lipid peroxidation, and meat colour of broiler chickens. A total of 180 broiler chickens were allocated to 3 dietary treatments (0, 2.5, and 5% Lutrell) and given a standard broiler starter diet and finisher diet. Body weight of chickens and feed intake were recorded weekly. After slaughter, the breast meat was aged at 4°C for 0, 3, and 6 days. The fatty acid composition was measured in the breast meat. Body weight (BW) and feed efficiency were decreased by dietary CLA level (P<0.05). Chicken fed with 2.5% Lutrell had the highest feed intake compared to the control (CON) group. The total CLA increased significantly (P<0.05) in breast meat from birds supplemented with CLA. Propensity for lipid peroxidation was significantly higher after 6 days of meat storage (P<0.05) and the redness in chicken breast meat was lower in CLA-fed birds (P<0.05). It is also notable that a 5% Lutrell supplementation decreased the plasma total cholesterol (TC), low density protein (LDL), and HDL (high-density lipoprotein)/LDL ratio in chickens (P<0.05)