Placing the Fijian Honeyeaters within the meliphagid radiation: implications for origins and conservation

Understanding the evolutionary relationships of threatened species provides an important framework for making decisions about their conservation. However, unrecognised problems with the underlying phylogenetic analyses may bias the decision-making process. Recent phylogenetic studies have improved our understanding of Meliphagidae, but also indicate discordance between molecular datasets. Here, we examine the causes of this discordance using maximum likelihood tree-building and network analyses of identically sampled datasets for four genetic loci. Our results suggest that while we can be reasonably confident of relationships within species groups, discordance within and between molecular datasets tends to obscure relationships towards the base of the meliphagid tree. This ongoing uncertainty likely reflects differences in the sampling of markers and taxa between previously published analyses. To avoid the problems of conflicting data we used divergence time analyses of only the most densely sampled marker, NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain 2, to investigate the age and origins of the Fijian Meliphagidae. Our analyses suggest two temporally distinct colonisations of the Fijian archipelago. The large-bodied honeyeaters arrived ,15.6 million years ago, subsequently diversifying and spreading to Tonga and Samoa. In contrast, Myzomela appears to have arrived within the last 5.0 million years. The phylogenetic results therefore imply that conserving the evolutionary diversity of Meliphagidae in Polynesia requires that effort be spread across both the currently recognised taxa and geographical range

The spatial pattern of soil-dwelling termites in primary and logged forest in Sabah, Malaysia

1. Primary and logged lowland dipterocarp forest sites were sampled for subterranean termites using soil pits located on a grid system in order to detect any patchiness in their distribution. 2. A spatial pattern in termite distributions was observed in the primary and logged sites, but the response differed between soil-feeding and non-soil-feeding termites. 3. Spatial analysis showed that soil-feeding termites were homogeneously distributed in the primary forest but significantly aggregated in the logged forest. This pattern was reversed for non-soil-feeding termites and may result from differences in resource provisioning between the two sites. 4. Gaps in termite distribution comprised a greater area than patches for both feeding groups and sites, but gaps dominated the logged site. 5. A significant association between soil-feeding and non-soil-feeding termite distributions occurred at both sites. This arose from an association between patches in the primary forest and between gaps in the logged forest. 6. Termite spatial pattern was optimally observed at a minimum extent of 64 m and lag of 2 m. 7. The spatially explicit SADIE (Spatial Analysis by Distances IndicEs) analyses were more successful than (non-spatially explicit) multivariate analysis (Canonical Correspondence Analysis) at detecting associations between termite spatial distributions and that of other biotic and abiotic variables

Regional and ecotype traits in Lotus Corniculatus L., with reference to restoration ecology

To assess the relative importance of distance (geographical or ecological) as a consideration when collecting seeds for restoration projects, there is a need for more research on regional and ecotypic variation in a range of species. We used Lotus corniculatus L., a legume frequently included in grassland seed mixes, to investigate phenotypic variation between British accessions in a common garden experiment. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of seed origin on plant phenotype and fecundity and to determine whether there was any evidence of correlation with distance (geographical or ecological) in populations grown from seed collected from different locations. Regional differences were detected in plant size, growth habit, pubescence, leaf shape, and fecundity. Geographical distance between sites was shown to be positively correlated with an increased difference in seed yield. Differences in size, growth habit, and leaf shape between paired habitats of origin within region and also between “ecotypes” were evident. However, there was no correlation between ecological distance and any of the measured traits. These findings suggest that: 1. Differences in phenotype and fecundity between geographically separated populations of L. corniculatus may be sufficient to lead to differences in survival and fitness when seeds are sown in a restoration environment. 2. Although it is important to consider geographical location, the choice of habitat within region is also important because phenotypic variation between ecotypes may have long-term consequences for plant persistence

Regional and ecotype traits in Lotus corniculatus L. with reference to restoration ecology

To assess the relative importance of distance (geographical or ecological) as a consideration when collecting seeds for restoration projects, there is a need for more research on regional and ecotypic variation in a range of species. We used Lotus corniculatus L., a legume frequently included in grassland seed mixes, to investigate phenotypic variation between British accessions in a common garden experiment. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of seed origin on plant phenotype and fecundity and to determine whether there was any evidence of correlation with distance (geographical or ecological) in populations grown from seed collected from different locations. Regional differences were detected in plant size, growth habit, pubescence, leaf shape, and fecundity. Geographical distance between sites was shown to be positively correlated with an increased difference in seed yield. Differences in size, growth habit, and leaf shape between paired habitats of origin within region and also between “ecotypes” were evident. However, there was no correlation between ecological distance and any of the measured traits. These findings suggest that: 1. Differences in phenotype and fecundity between geographically separated populations of L. corniculatus may be sufficient to lead to differences in survival and fitness when seeds are sown in a restoration environment. 2. Although it is important to consider geographical location, the choice of habitat within region is also important because phenotypic variation between ecotypes may have long-term consequences for plant persistence

The representation and functional composition of carabid and staphylinid beetles in different field boundary types at a farm-scale

At the farm-scale, hedgerow, degraded hedgerow and fence field boundary types were sampled for overwintering carabid and staphylinid beetles. Distinct beetle assemblages were evident and the structural and botanical characteristics of the boundary types were good explanatory factors of the differences. Each field boundary type supported unique species not found elsewhere; nine species were contributed by hedgerows alone and six species each from degraded hedgerows and fences. Using a systematic complementary site selection method we determined that all field boundary types were of equal importance for full representation of carabid and staphylinid species at the farm-scale. Additionally, fence habitats supported generalist predators of crop pests in greatest densities, whilst degraded hedgerows were most valuable in providing refuge to species vulnerable to disturbance and habitat fragmentation. Contrary to expectation, woodland species were not more evident in hedgerows than either degraded boundaries or fence habitat. This study provides empirical evidence that some components of biodiversity and sustainable farming are best maintained by retaining habitat heterogeneity, including features currently considered of limited conservation value

Distribution and community composition of lichens on mature mangroves (Avicennia marina subsp. australasica (Walp.) J.Everett) in New Zealand.

Mangrove forests of a single trees species, Avicennia marina subsp. australasica are widespread in the upper North Island of New Zealand, but there is little available information on the diversity of epiphytes such as lichens within them. A survey of 200 trees from 20 mangrove sites recorded a total of 106 lichen species from 45 genera. Two of these species are considered to be 'Threatened', five 'At Risk' and 27 'Data Deficient'. Multiple regression indicated that tree diameter (DBH) and mean annual rain days positively influenced site species richness. Multidimensional scaling showed that sites from the same geographical region generally formed distinct clusters. Redundancy analysis indicated that mean annual wet days, latitude and DBH measurably influenced species composition

Monoclonal antibodies reveal changes in predator efficiency with prey spatial pattern

Spatially explicit predator–prey interactions can alter the predatory potential of natural enemies augmented through conservation biological control. To test hypotheses regarding such interactions and predatory efficiency, we used a combination of molecular techniques and mark–release–recapture to study the foraging behaviour of a generalist carabid predator, Poecilus cupreus, in response to spatial patterns of its cereal aphid prey (Metapolophium dirhodum and Sitobion avenae). Beetle and aphid numbers were measured across two grids of sampling locations, within which aphid spatial pattern had been manipulated to generate patchy and more homogenous distributions. Aphid consumption was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) of beetle gut contents, using an aphid-specific monoclonal antibody. Movement and distribution patterns suggest that P. cupreus does not aggregate at, nor instigate prey-taxis within, aphid patches. However, more than two-thirds of the 2169 P. cupreus tested by ELISA had consumed aphids and the proportion of beetles containing aphid proteins was positively related to aphid density. Against expectation, the proportion of predators feeding on aphids was greatest where prey were homogenously distributed, and this was attributed to the loss of partial refuges for prey in aphid patches. The functional value of this type of uniform foraging strategy is ideally suited to early colonization of the crop habitat, when aphid numbers are low, before populations build up and form strong spatial patterns

Distribution and community composition of lichens on mature mangroves (<i>Avicennia marina</i> subsp. <i>australasica</i> (Walp.) J.Everett) in New Zealand

<div><p>Mangrove forests of a single trees species, <i>Avicennia marina</i> subsp. <i>australasica</i> are widespread in the upper North Island of New Zealand, but there is little available information on the diversity of epiphytes such as lichens within them. A survey of 200 trees from 20 mangrove sites recorded a total of 106 lichen species from 45 genera. Two of these species are considered to be ‘Threatened’, five ‘At Risk’ and 27 ‘Data Deficient’. Multiple regression indicated that tree diameter (DBH) and mean annual rain days positively influenced site species richness. Multidimensional scaling showed that sites from the same geographical region generally formed distinct clusters. Redundancy analysis indicated that mean annual wet days, latitude and DBH measurably influenced species composition.</p></div

Example of a representative species accumulation curve (site K1).

<p>All other sites followed a similar pattern. Error bars represent standard deviation.</p

MDS plot of sites within the regions Northland (HO, KK, MA, PH, WA).

<p><b>Auckland (KB, PU, WI), Kaipara (K1, K2, M, W1, W2, P, PA, WH) and Coromandel (KA O, OP, PI).</b> Region boundaries shown for clarity.</p