Proximate and Underlying Causes of Illegal Timber Trade in Uganda

Uganda has policies and laws that can foster legal timber trade. This chapter reviews the key sources of timber and current production channels in Uganda. It describes policies and laws governing timber trade and challenges encountered in the quest for legal timber trade. We also show the underlying and proximate causes of illegal timber trade and its impacts on livelihoods, environment, and economy. The sources of timber in Uganda were previously the government-owned forest plantations and natural forests which have dwindled. There is a timber deficit and this has proliferated illegal trade in timber which affects national and local government revenue and forest degradation. Formal, informal, and a mix of formal and informal systems are the main channels of timber production. The responsible agencies that are mandated to ensure legal timber trade are engulfed by institutional weaknesses and socio-cultural and political landscape that is riddled with dishonesty, impunity and lack of transparency. There is need for more engagements to build momentum for promoting legal timber trade and enforcement of rule of law. This can be attained through improved inter- and intra-institutional collaboration, improved accountability and creating incentives for legal timber trade

Total Economic Value of Wetlands Products and Services in Uganda

Wetlands provide food and non-food products that contribute to income and food security in Uganda. This study determined the economic value of wetland resources and their contribution to food security in the three agroecological zones of Uganda. The values of wetland resources were estimated using primary and secondary data. Market price, Productivity, and Contingent valuation methods were used to estimate the value of wetland resources. The per capita value of fish was approximately US$0.49 person−1. Fish spawning was valued at approximately US$ 363,815 year−1, livestock pastures at US$4.24 million, domestic water use at US$ 34 million year−1, and the gross annual value added by wetlands to milk production at US$1.22 million. Flood control was valued at approximately US$ 1,702,934,880 hectare−1 year−1 and water regulation and recharge at US$7,056,360 hectare−1 year−1. Through provision of grass for mulching, wetlands were estimated to contribute to US$ 8.65 million annually. The annual contribution of non-use values was estimated in the range of US$7.1 million for water recharge and regulation and to US$ 1.7 billion for flood control. Thus, resource investment for wetlands conservation is economically justified to create incentives for continued benefits

Contribution of wetland resources to household food security in Uganda

The study mapped experiences of local people regarding food security; assessed the contribution of wetlands to food security; and determined factors that influence dependence on wetlands for food in Uganda, where local farmers are vulnerable to starvation because of dependence on rain-fed agriculture. The traditional means of increasing food production has been to expand areas under cultivation, especially wetlands. Consequently, Uganda has lost about 11,268 km2 of wetland (30% of the country’s wetlands between 1994-2009). Research findings show about 83% of surveyed households experienced food insecurity, and significantly less among households with older and better educated household heads

Wetland use/cover changes and local perceptions in Uganda

With increasing population, coupled with land shortage and weather variations, wetlands in Uganda have continued to face degradation due to mainly conversion for agricultural, industrial and settlement purposes. The objective of this study was to determine the spatial and temporal wetland use/cover changes and local perceptions attributed to these changes. The study utilized three sets of ortho-rectified and cloud free Landsat TM/ETM+/MSS temporal images (30 m) of 1986, 2000 and 2011. The classification procedures were carried out using an Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) software version 3.7. A wetland classification system for Uganda developed by the National Biomass Study, 2003 was adopted to describe the wetland use/cover types. The classified images were validated in a ground truthing exercise using Global Positioning System (GPS) to improve on the classification accuracy. Key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with communities adjacent to the wetlands in each of three of the ten Ugandan agro-ecological zones to determine the underlying drivers of wetland use/cover changes, while household interviews generated information on local perceptions of the changes. Significant changes were mainly observed in wetland use/cover between 1986 and 2011. Major factors responsible for these changes were subsistence farming due to intensification of growing paddy rice in Kyoga plains, an influx of migrants who accessed wetlands for daily subsistence (livestock grazing) in South western farmlands and proximity to urban centres in the Lake Victoria Crescent. In all the sampled agro-ecological zones, increased crop farming in wetlands was due to changing opportunities created by existent large markets for wetland crops. Majority (60%) of the local people perceived wetlands in their proximity to have undergone high degradation within the last 10 years, and to have declined in quantity and quality of vegetation, soil fertility and water levels. There was a noticeable variation across the sampled agro-ecological zones, with the highest proportion of local communities perceiving degradation being in Kyoga plains (76%), followed by Lake Victoria crescent (63%) and South-western farmlands (41%). Locally perceived threats to wetlands were mainly from crop growing that accounted for 33% of the frequency of mentioned threats, collection of wetland resources (30%), and prolonged floods and droughts (12%). This study confirms the importance of economic opportunities from new market outlets and migration in its various forms as key factors in land use change, especially at timescales of a couple of decades

Economic value of wetlands products and services in Uganda

Wetlands provide an estimated net contribution of approximately US$10,491 per hectare annually from both products and services. The annual contribution of non-use values was estimated in the range of US$ 7.1 million for water recharge and regulation and US$ 1.7 billion for flood control. This study will enable comparison of wetlands with other sectors of the economy. To guide decisions on wetland management, it is important to recognize value in economic terms towards resource allocation, budgeting and formulation of national policies. Other benefits include tourism, purification and filtration of water, microclimate moderation, and habitat provision for diverse life forms

Contribution of wetlands to household food security in Uganda

75% of populations living near wetlands have better food security, mainly through direct consumption of wetland products such as fish, vegetables and fruits, along with the use of wetlands for growing crops (rice, vegetables, coco yams and maize). The contribution of wetlands to food security has not been investigated previously, hence efforts at sustainability have not attracted attention in Uganda, with resulting increase of wetland degradation. During implementation and review of the Fisheries, Agriculture and Food and Nutrition Policies, wetlands should be recognised and included as critical resources that facilitate food security. Currently only agricultural land is recognized

Wetland Use/Cover Changes and Local Perceptions in Uganda

With increasing population, coupled with land shortage and weather variations, wetlands in Uganda have continued to face degradation due to mainly conversion for agricultural, industrial and settlement purposes. The objective of this study was to determine the spatial and temporal wetland use/cover changes and local perceptions attributed to these changes. The study utilized three sets of ortho-rectified and cloud free Landsat TM/ETM+/MSS temporal images (30 m) of 1986, 2000 and 2011. The classification procedures were carried out using an Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) software version 3.7. A wetland classification system for Uganda developed by the National Biomass Study, 2003 was adopted to describe the wetland use/cover types. The classified images were validated in a ground truthing exercise using Global Positioning System (GPS) to improve on the classification accuracy. Key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with communities adjacent to the wetlands in each of three of the ten Ugandan agro-ecological zones to determine the underlying drivers of wetland use/cover changes, while household interviews generated information on local perceptions of the changes. Significant changes were mainly observed in wetland use/cover between 1986 and 2011. Major factors responsible for these changes were subsistence farming due to intensification of growing paddy rice in Kyoga plains, an influx of migrants who accessed wetlands for daily subsistence (livestock grazing) in South western farmlands and proximity to urban centres in the Lake Victoria Crescent. In all the sampled agro-ecological zones, increased crop farming in wetlands was due to changing opportunities created by existent large markets for wetland crops. Majority (60%) of the local people perceived wetlands in their proximity to have undergone high degradation within the last 10 years, and to have declined in quantity and quality of vegetation, soil fertility and water levels. There was a noticeable variation across the sampled agro-ecological zones, with the highest proportion of local communities perceiving degradation being in Kyoga plains (76%), followed by Lake Victoria crescent (63%) and South-western farmlands (41%). Locally perceived threats to wetlands were mainly from crop growing that accounted for 33% of the frequency of mentioned threats, collection of wetland resources (30%), and prolonged floods and droughts (12%). This study confirms the importance of economic opportunities from new market outlets and migration in its various forms as key factors in land use change, especially at timescales of a couple of decades

Awareness, perceptions and implementation of policy and legal provisions on wetlands in Uganda

Wetland degradation is currently a major global environmental challenge. In Uganda, the situation is similar despite the country’s relatively long history of wetland policy and legislation. This study was carried out after over two decades since the onset of an ambitious national wetlands programme to examine local awareness and perceptions wetlands policy and legislation. It was conducted on the basis that understanding of the opinions and attitudes of farmers and other wetland users regarding wetland policies and regulations helps managers and policy makers in making informed decisions for sustainable wetland management. Semi-structured interviews conducted with 222 randomly selected households resident within a 5 km radius of the sampled wetlands were augmented by three Focus Group Discussions and 40 key informant interviews. More than half of the respondents (64%) were aware of the national wetlands management and conservation policy, with 32% expressly suggesting that the provisions in the National Environment Act are sufficient to support sustainable use of wetlands while only 6% expressed knowledge of informal or traditional rules and regulations for use of wetlands. Regression results revealed that education and income status significantly influenced respondents awareness of the wetland policy and provisions in other formal policies and laws. Residents of both Lake Victoria Crescent and South western farm lands were significantly (p<0.05) more likely to be aware of provisions in other formal policies and laws, owing to sensitisation by conservation projects based in these localities and having operational Community-based Wetland Management Plan. Majority (77%) of respondents expressed that the policies and legal provisions on wetlands were not adequately enforced and nearly 90% of the respondents perceived a need for locally tailored by-laws and ordinances and an improvement in communication of information about wetland policy. Irrespective of improvement in awareness of the wetland policy and legislation in Uganda, enforcement is likely to remain poor due to limited livelihood options for local people as they use wetlands for food security and livelihood improvement. Local communities also claim ignorance of wetland policy, regulations and laws that they do not agree with, given the sensitivity of use and management of wetland resources. Successful conservation of wetlands will thus depend on implementation of acknowledged policy and legal provisions coupled with the crafting and creation of awareness of locally tailored policies, by- laws and ordinances on wetlands

Wetland use/cover changes in Uganda from 1986-2011

Rapid change in wetland cover has been hastened by increasing annual population growth with pressure for settlement and industrial expansion especially in and around urban and peri-urban wetland areas. The trend for increasing conversion of wetlands for subsistence farming is clear in mapping from 2011 compared with 1986, particularly in the Lake Victoria crescent and Kyoga plains. These changes are driven mainly by subsistence farming due to intensification of low land (paddy) rice in Kyoga plains, banana plantation, and influx of migrants and refugees from nearby countries