Nitric oxide signalling in astrocytes

Dans le cerveau, les astrocytes sont les cellules gliales les plus abondantes et elles jouent divers rôles, y compris le maintien des synapses tripartites et la régulation du débit sanguin cérébral (DSC). Le monoxyde d’azote (NO) est une molécule de signal endogène qui a un impact sur la régulation de l'activité synaptique et du DSC. Des études antérieures ont démontré que le NO est produit dans les cellules endothéliales et les neurones par la synthase du monoxyde d’azote endothéliale (eNOS) et neuronale (nNOS), respectivement. Cependant, la source de production de NO dans les astrocytes reste incertaine. Par conséquent, nous proposons que la voie de signalisation NOS constitutive puisse coexister dans les astrocytes et puisse être activée par différents neurotransmetteurs. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'identifier les sources et les activateurs de la production de NO dans les astrocytes corticaux de la souris. L'identification des isoformes constitutives de NOS effectuée au moyen de la microscopie électronique et d'immunohistochimie a révélé l’expression des eNOS et nNOS dans les astrocytes. Des préparations de culture d'astrocytes et de tranches de cerveau marquées avec du diacétate de 4-amino-5-méthylamino-2',7'-difluorescéine (DAF-FM), un indicateur de NO perméable aux cellules qui devient imperméable une fois à l’intérieur ont été réalisées. Cette fonctionnalité a été mise à profit pour évaluer la production de NO exclusivement dans les astrocytes en utilisant la microscopie confocale à uni- et multi-photons. De plus, des agonistes cholinergiques ou glutamatergiques qui ont la capacité d’augmenter la concentration de Ca2+ intracellulaire peuvent induire une production du NO in vitro et ex vivo dans les astrocytes, qui est supprimée en présence de l'inhibiteur de NOS non sélectif, L-NG -Nitro-arginine. Fait intéressant, la réponse NO à l’acétylcholine était absente chez les souris eNOS-/-, tandis que l'acide trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylique (t-ACPD) a peu affecté la production de NO chez les souris nNOS-/-. Ces résultats impliquent que les eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires peuvent être déclenchés par des cascades d'activation distinctes (cholinergique et glutamatergique métabotrope). En outre, les études sur la mobilisation cytosolique du Ca2+ indiquent l'importance du réticulum endoplasmique comme réservoir de Ca2+ pour la production de NO, et suggèrent aussi une voie de signalisation astrocytaire qui, une fois activée par le t- ACPD, provoque l'efflux de Ca2+ médié par le récepteur à la ryanodine, qui à son tour active les nNOS adjacents et conduit à la production de NO. Par ailleurs, la superfusion de préparations in vitro et ex vivo avec du N-Méthyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) a provoqué une augmentation du NO tant dans les souris eNOS-/- que nNOS-/-, ce qui indique l'implication des eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires. La production de NO a été atténuée par l'inhibition du complexe PSD-95 / nNOS ce qui suggère que le récepteur NMDA astrocytaire rend fonctionnelle la cassette de signalisation NR2B/PSD-95/nNOS. En conclusion, nos résultats démontrent que : i) les astrocytes corticaux expriment à la fois eNOS et nNOS; ii) la nNOS cytosolique colocalise avec les récepteurs 2 et 3 de la ryanodine, alors que les nNOS membranaires colocalisent avec le récepteur NMDA contenant le NR2B; iii) la stimulation neuronale a la capacité d'induire la production de NO par les eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires par des voies de signalisation différentes; iv) l'activation des nNOS cytosoliques nécessite une activation des récepteurs à la ryanodine. Collectivement, ces données suggèrent une production de NO compartimentée et spécifique après une stimulation neuronale probablement dans le but de réguler finement et de façon polarisée les fonctions astrocytaires. Ce travail fournit un nouvel aperçu des conséquences physiologiques pour les fonctions neuronales et vasculaires et améliore notre compréhension de la fonction NO astrocytaire dans le cerveau.In the brain, astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells and play various roles including maintenance of tripartite synapses and regulation of CBF. An endogenous signal molecule that has a potential to have an effect on regulation of both synaptic activity and CBF is nitric oxide (NO). Previous studies have demonstrated that NO is produced in endothelial cells and neurons by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), respectively. However, the source of NO production in astrocyte remains uncertain. Therefore, we propose that constitutive NOS signalling pathways may exist in astrocyte and can be activated by different neurotransmitters. The aim of this thesis is to identify the sources and activators of NO production in mouse cortical astrocytes. Identification of constitutive NOS isoforms done by means of electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry revealed the expression of both eNOS and nNOS in astrocytes. All preparations were performed in astrocyte cultures and brain slice preparations labeled with 4- amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorescein (DAF-FM) diacetate, a cell-permeant NO indicator that becomes cell-impermeable once inside cells. Therefore, I took advantage of this feature to evaluate NO production exclusively in astrocytes using single and multi-photon confocal microscopy. We then tested whether cholinergic and glutamatergic agonists that have the capacity to increase intracellular Ca2+ concentration can induce an increase in astrocytic NO. Both in vitro and ex vivo, NO production levels indicate that cholinergic and glutamatergic stimulations can induce astrocytic NO increases, which was abolished by the non-selective NOS inhibitor L- NG -Nitro-arginine. Moreover, the NO response to ACh was absent in eNOS-/- mice, while trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (t-ACPD) barely affected NO production in nNOS-/- mice. These results imply that astrocytic eNOS and nNOS can be triggered discretely by distinct activation cascades (cholinergic and metabotropic glutamatergic). Furthermore, studies on cytosolic Ca2+ mobilization point out the importance of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ as key in the mechanism of NO production, and suggests a signalling pathway that t-ACPD causes IP3Rs to elicit RyRs-mediated Ca2+ efflux, which in turn, activates adjacent nNOS and leads to NO production. Furthermore, superfusion of in vitro and ex vivo preparations with N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) evoked an increase in NO in eNOS-/- and nNOS-/- mice. The NO production was attenuated through removal of PSD-95/nNOS complex. This result posits that astrocytic NMDA receptor may comprise the functional NR2B/PSD- 95/nNOS signalling cassette. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that: i) cortical astrocytes express both eNOS and nNOS; ii) nNOS colocalizes with ryanodine receptor 2 and 3, whereas membrane nNOS colocalizes with NR2B-containing NMDA receptor; iii) neuronal stimulation has the capacity of inducing eNOS- and nNOS-produced NO in astrocytes via different activation signalling; iv) activation of cytosolic nNOS requires the activation of ryanodine receptors. Collectively, these data suggest a compartmentalized and specific NO production following neuronal stimulation probably for a fine and polarized regulation of astrocytic functions. This work provides new insight into physiological consequences for neuronal and vascular functions and ameliorates our understanding of astrocytic NO function in the brain

Capitalisation of research and development investment and enterprise value: a study on the threshold effect based on level of financialisation

This study uses a mathematical model to explore how enterprises’ financialisation levels affect the role of research and development (R&D) investment capitalisation in enterprise value. We construct a mathematical model involving the financialisation level, capitalised R&D investment, and enterprise value. The sample comprises A-share listed companies that disclosed the capitalisation of R&D investment in the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock markets from 2014 to 2020. The results suggest that R&D investment capitalisation positively impacts enterprise value, especially in the current phase. With financialisation level as the threshold variable, R&D investment capitalisation has a double threshold effect on enterprise value in the current and next phases. Additionally, corporate financial investment behaviour has a timely impact on capitalised R&D investment but does not significantly impact enterprise value in a future phase. Enterprises evidently choose financial investment to enhance enterprise value by increasing capitalised R&D investment. These results can help enterprises formulate financial asset investment strategies and promote their development from virtual to real. The government should standardise enterprises’ financial investment behaviour, prevent excessive financialisation, and promote high-quality development of the real economy

Gene-based association tests using GWAS summary statistics and incorporating eQTL

Although genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been successfully applied to a variety of complex diseases and identified many genetic variants underlying complex diseases via single marker tests, there is still a considerable heritability of complex diseases that could not be explained by GWAS. One alternative approach to overcome the missing heritability caused by genetic heterogeneity is gene-based analysis, which considers the aggregate effects of multiple genetic variants in a single test. Another alternative approach is transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS). TWAS aggregates genomic information into functionally relevant units that map to genes and their expression. TWAS is not only powerful, but can also increase the interpretability in biological mechanisms of identified trait associated genes. In this study, we propose a powerful and computationally efficient gene-based association test, called Overall. Using extended Simes procedure, Overall aggregates information from three types of traditional gene-based association tests and also incorporates expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) information into a gene-based association test using GWAS summary statistics. We show that after a small number of replications to estimate the correlation among the integrated gene-based tests, the p values of Overall can be calculated analytically. Simulation studies show that Overall can control type I error rates very well and has higher power than the tests that we compared with. We also apply Overall to two schizophrenia GWAS summary datasets and two lipids GWAS summary datasets. The results show that this newly developed method can identify more significant genes than other methods we compared with

Short time-series microarray analysis: Methods and challenges

The detection and analysis of steady-state gene expression has become routine. Time-series microarrays are of growing interest to systems biologists for deciphering the dynamic nature and complex regulation of biosystems. Most temporal microarray data only contain a limited number of time points, giving rise to short-time-series data, which imposes challenges for traditional methods of extracting meaningful information. To obtain useful information from the wealth of short-time series data requires addressing the problems that arise due to limited sampling. Current efforts have shown promise in improving the analysis of short time-series microarray data, although challenges remain. This commentary addresses recent advances in methods for short-time series analysis including simplification-based approaches and the integration of multi-source information. Nevertheless, further studies and development of computational methods are needed to provide practical solutions to fully exploit the potential of this data

Cancer-Drug Associations: A Complex System

Network analysis has been performed on large-scale medical data, capturing the global topology of drugs, targets, and disease relationships. A smaller-scale network is amenable to a more detailed and focused analysis of the individual members and their interactions in a network, which can complement the global topological descriptions of a network system. Analysis of these smaller networks can help address questions, i.e., what governs the pairing of the different cancers and drugs, is it driven by molecular findings or other factors, such as death statistics.We defined global and local lethality values representing death rates relative to other cancers vs. within a cancer. We generated two cancer networks, one of cancer types that share Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs (FDA cancer network), and another of cancer types that share clinical trials of FDA approved drugs (clinical trial cancer network). Breast cancer is the only cancer type with significant weighted degree values in both cancer networks. Lung cancer is significantly connected in the FDA cancer network, whereas ovarian cancer and lymphoma are significantly connected in the clinical trial cancer network. Correlation and linear regression analyses showed that global lethality impacts the drug approval and trial numbers, whereas, local lethality impacts the amount of drug sharing in trials and approvals. However, this effect does not apply to pancreatic, liver, and esophagus cancers as the sharing of drugs for these cancers is very low. We also collected mutation target information to generate cancer type associations which were compared with the cancer type associations derived from the drug target information. The analysis showed a weak overlap between the mutation and drug target based networks.The clinical and FDA cancer networks are differentially connected, with only breast cancer significantly connected in both networks. The networks of cancer-drug associations are moderately affected by the death statistics. A strong overlap does not exist between the cancer-drug associations and the molecular information. Overall, this analysis provides a systems level view of cancer drugs and suggests that death statistics (i.e. global vs. local lethality) have a differential impact on the number of approvals, trials and drug sharing

A clustering linear combination method for multiple phenotype association studies based on GWAS summary statistics

There is strong evidence showing that joint analysis of multiple phenotypes in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) can increase statistical power when detecting the association between genetic variants and human complex diseases. We previously developed the Clustering Linear Combination (CLC) method and a computationally efficient CLC (ceCLC) method to test the association between multiple phenotypes and a genetic variant, which perform very well. However, both of these methods require individual-level genotypes and phenotypes that are often not easily accessible. In this research, we develop a novel method called sCLC for association studies of multiple phenotypes and a genetic variant based on GWAS summary statistics. We use the LD score regression to estimate the correlation matrix among phenotypes. The test statistic of sCLC is constructed by GWAS summary statistics and has an approximate Cauchy distribution. We perform a variety of simulation studies and compare sCLC with other commonly used methods for multiple phenotype association studies using GWAS summary statistics. Simulation results show that sCLC can control Type I error rates well and has the highest power in most scenarios. Moreover, we apply the newly developed method to the UK Biobank GWAS summary statistics from the XIII category with 70 related musculoskeletal system and connective tissue phenotypes. The results demonstrate that sCLC detects the most number of significant SNPs, and most of these identified SNPs can be matched to genes that have been reported in the GWAS catalog to be associated with those phenotypes. Furthermore, sCLC also identifies some novel signals that were missed by standard GWAS, which provide new insight into the potential genetic factors of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue phenotypes

High Level of CXCR4 in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Specimens Associated with a Poor Clinical Outcome

Despite high sensitivity to chemotherapy, the prognosis for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains poor because of its high rate of metastasis and low sensitivity to endocrine therapy. CXCR4 expression has been reported in many subtypes of human breast cancers, but it remains unknown whether CXCR4 is expressed in TNBC and whether CXCR4 expression in TNBC could be a prognostic indicator. TNBCs tissues were formalin fixed, paraffin embedded and hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) stained. Immunohistochemical staining was utilized to determine the CXCR4 expression in those specimens. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS16.0 software to reveal the correlation of CXCR4 expression in TNBC specimens and cancer recurrence and cancer-related death. Our results showed that there was a strong association between CXCR4 overexpression and both menopause and the histological cancer grade of TNBC patients (p values were separately 0.004 and 0.001). The 5-y disease-free survival (DFS) and the 5-y overall survival (OS) were 57.69% and 58.33% for the low-CXCR4 group versus 42.11% and 44.74% for the high-CXCR4 group, respectively (p＝0.031 and 0.048). CXCR4 overexpression plays an important role in triple-negative breast cancers, and may be a predictor of poor prognosis