Linking biology and sustainable livelihoods to the proposed establishment of community -based Eucheumoid farming in southern Kenya

Philosophiae Doctor - PhDGrowth rates of three commercial eucheumoids: brown Eucheuma denticulatum and green and brown Kappaphycus alvarezii were studied at three sites (Gazi Bay, Kibuyuni and Mkwiro) in southern Kenya. The study was conducted using the fixed off-bottom rope technique over a 15 month period from August 2001 to October 2002, in 4 plots (5 m x 1.5 m) set up at each site. The brown E. denticulatum had the highest mean growth rate over the entire period of 4.7% day-I compared to the green and brown K. alvarezii which were 4.3% day l and 4.2% dayl, respectively. Mean relative growth rates were highest at Gazi (5.6% dayl), and lowest in Kibuyuni (3.2% day-I) with intermediate values of 4.8% dail at Mkwiro. Increased water motion was observed to increase thallus nitrogen and hence the growth of eucheumoids. The 'ice-ice' syndrome affected both brown E. denticulatum and brown K. alvarezii but not green K. alvarezii. Mean growth was higher during the southeast monsoon (4.7% day+) than during the northeast monsoon (4.0% dayl).The carrageenan characteristics of the three morphotypes were measured for 12 months. The highest carrageenan yield was obtained for green K. alvarezii (59.1% dry wt), whereas the average carrageenan yield for brown K. alvarezii was 56.5% dry wt and 56.6% dry wt for brown E. denticulatum. The plants at Gazi (58.0% dry wt) had a slightly, though significantly, higher carrageenan yield than both those at Kibuyuni (57.1 % dry wt) and Mkwiro (57.3% dry wt). However, from a commercial point of view the differences in carrageenan yields were not meaningful. Highest gel strengths were obtained in carrageenans from green K. alvarezii (1042.1 g cm") and brown K. alvarezii (1053.7 g ern"), whereas low values of 100.8 g ern" were obtained for brown E. denticulatum. The brown E. denticulatum had carrageenan with higher viscosity (81.7 mPa.s) and sulphate content (29.1% dry wt) than both green and brown K. alvarezii. The gel viscosities of all the morphotypes were higher during the southeast monsoon (67.3 mPa.s) than during the northeast monsoon (46.3 mPa.s) and were positively correlated with gel strengths.A survey was conducted among households in the three villages, from April to September 2001 to assess their socio-economic characteristics. There were 182 household heads interviewed; about 20% were women. Fishing was the main source of livelihood for about 48% of the household members. In 2001, the average monthly income for the surveyed households was Kshs. 9904 (1 US$=75 Kshs.), with about 67% having less than Kshs. 10 000. The average prevalence of poverty among the households surveyed was 45.1% with 38.8%,54.8% and 46.7% of households in Gazi, Kibuyuni and Mkwiro villages, respectively, living below the poverty line of Kshs. 1239 per month per adult person. An economic feasibility study for growing brown E. denticulatum and brown K. alvarezii in pilot farms of 0.1 ha was conducted at Gazi and Kibuyuni. A higher yield of 793 kg dry wt was obtained for plants grown at Gazi than those at Kibuyuni (793 kg dry wt). The net income derived from E. denticulatum was estimated at Kshs. 7549 annually in a 0.1 ha seaweed farm. A higher annual income of Kshs. 49 126 was generated from K. alvarezii. The rate of return on investment in farming E. denticulatum ranged from 15 to 63%, while 122 to 380% for K. alvarezii. The pay back period was shorter for the latter (0.3 to 0.7 years) than the former (1.2 to 2.7 years).A cross-sectoral policy analysis regarding legislation and policy relevant to the introduction and development of eucheumoid cultivation in Kenya, with particular reference to Kenyan legislation was conducted. The analysis showed that there is no system of promoting or regulating mariculture, though there are fragmented regulations that are scattered among the policies, Acts and regulations of various institutions. Such regulations were not designed specifically for mariculture and as a result they do not fully address the needs of mariculture. The establishment of a national mariculture development programme in Kenya is proposed as a means to develop and manage the farming of marine resources, including seaweeds

Emerging azole resistance among Candida albicans from clinical sources in Nairobi, Kenya

In the recent years the number of serious opportunistic yeast infections,particularly in immunocompromised patients has increased significantly. The increased incidence of these infections has paralleled the emergence of HIV/AIDS pandemic that result in lowered resistance of the host. Azole antifungal agents has been extensively used in the management of these yeast infections. Candida albicans is one of the most frequently isolated yeasts in clinical laboratories and accounts for up to 80 % of the yeasts recovered from sites of infection. The study was set out to determine antifungal susceptibility of clinical isolates of Candida albicans and to establish the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) to Fluconazole, Clotrimazole, Nystatin and Amphotericin B. Laboratory based experiment were conducted at Mycology Laboratory, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya. One hundred and thirty clinical isolates of Candida albicans were subjected to antifungal susceptibility testing. Susceptibility to Fluconazole, Clotrimazole, Nystatin and Amphotericin B was done using Broth Microdilution Technique with reference to Clinical laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI). The investigations showed that 16/130 (12.3 %) of the Candida albicans isolates were resistant (MIC ≥ 64 µg/ml) to fluconazole, 121/130 (93.1 %) of the isolates had an MIC ≤ 1 µg/ml to Amphotericin B. Of the isolates 51/130 (39.2 %) had MIC> 1 µg/ml to clotrimazole  whereas 109/130 (83.8 %) of the isolates had MIC . 1 µg/ml to nystatin. The study showed elevated MICs among Candida albicans isolates to fluconazole and clotrimazole and calls for constant antifungal resistance surveillance especially in the context of fluconazole maintenance treatment for opportunistic infections in HIV/AIDS

Growth Performance, Fecundity and Sexual Growth Dimorphism of Oreochromis Esculentus and Oreochromis Niloticus Under Cage Culture in Kisii County, Kenya

Oreochromis esculentus, a fish species relished by people around the Lake Victoria region is no longer abundant due to competitive exclusion by introduced fishes and fishing pressure. There is a need for its culture for production and determination of its growth performance in captivity. Little information is available on the growth of O. esculentus in captivity. This study aimed to evaluate growth performance, sexual growth dimorphism and fecundity of two species, the threatened O. esculentus and the traditionally cultured Oreochromis niloticus for recruitment of the former in aquaculture. Growth trials were undertaken at the Fish Multiplication Centre in Kisii County. Three treatments of O. esculentus (from Gesebei dam), O. niloticus (from County Fish Multiplication and Training Centre – CFMTC) and O. niloticus (from Kitaru dam) were replicated four times in cage culture. Each cage was stocked with 30 fingerlings, cultured for eight months and fed twice daily. Fish samples were collected biweekly for weight and length measurements. Eggs/ fry were retrieved from brooding females and relative fecundity was evaluated. Data was analyzed using the analysis of covariance. For asymptotic weight, O. niloticus (CFMTC) weighing 329.7±5.48 g outperformed O. esculentus (Gesebei) 317.7±5.48 g and O. niloticus (Kitaru) 258.8±5.48 g (p <0.05). The O. esculentus had the highest asymptotic length of 30.5±0.29 cm, followed by O. niloticus (CFMTC) 28.5±0.29 cm and 26.5±0.29 cm for O. niloticus (Kitaru) (p <0.05). There was no significant difference in growth performance between the males and the females of O. esculentus in terms of asymptotic length and weight. For relative fecundity, there was no significant difference with slopes for fecundity means at 95% confidence intervals, with O. esculentus (Gesebei) at -0.07543, O. niloticus (CFMTC) and O. niloticus (Kitaru dam) at -0.06036 and -0.12034, respectively. The study showed O. esculentus is suitable for aquaculture due to its performance in length and can be a conservation strategy

Occupational Safety and Health Accidents among Biomedical Waste Handlers in Nairobi County

This study was conducted to investigate the reasons for prevalent increase in the number of occupational accidents among biomedical waste handlers despite the Waste Management Authority’s regulatory framework defining the laws and procedures that govern the collection, storage, processing, and disposal of biomedical waste in Nairobi County and recommend appropriate actions to counter the situation . The two areas of investigation consisted of determining the causes of occupational accidents and evaluating the attitude and knowledge of biomedical waste handlers in Nairobi County. Both, the qualitative and quantitative research paradigms were used in the study. A sample size of 168 participants from the target population of 1000 biomedical waste handlers was chosen with 160 questionnaires returned for statistical analysis. The study used a descriptive statistics approach to generate tables with the mean, standard error of the mean, t-distributions, percentages, and significance tests among other statistical measures to address the research objectives on the basis of the Petersen’s Accident/Incident and the human factors theories. On the causes of accidents, the results showed strong positive Skewness indicating problems with waste management practices, inadequate knowledge on waste classification at source, inadequate attention to rules and regulations governing the collection and handling of biomedical waste, inadequate training and awareness, poor enforcement of waste handling standards and policies, and inadequate knowledge on the classification and handling of biomedical waste. This revealed the nature of accidents to include pricks, contaminations, muscle tearing, scratches, being struck by falling objects and sustaining injuries due to falls. On knowledge and attitude of biomedical waste handlers, significant challenges were revealed showing that inadequate knowledge on safe waste handling methods with a significant number showing that their educational attainments barred them from comprehending the regulations and procedures for handling biomedical waste. A significance test at Kendall's tau coefficient statistic showed strong positive correlation between educational levels and managing biomedical waste. It was recommended that the Waste Management Authority designs a customized training program to address the problems facing biomedical waste handlers in Nairobi County. Keywords: Biomdedical waste, hazards, Accidents, Waste Management, injuries, pricks, Nairobi Count

Growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta; Gigartinales) cultured using modified off-bottom and floating raft techniques on the Kenyan coast

The study compared relative growth rates (RGR) of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii under modi- fied off-bottom (MB) and floating raft (FR) culture techniques on the southern coast of Kenya. Seasonal variability in RGRs was evident over 10 months in both techniques and sites. RGRs were in the range of 0.9 – 10.2 % d ̄1 for E. denticulatim and 0.3 – 5.7 % d ̄1 for K. alvarezii at Mkwiro, and -0.2 – 7.3 % d ̄1 for E. denticulatum and -1.7 – 4 % d ̄1 for K. alvarezii at Kibuyuni. The RGR of 4.3 ± 0.4 % d ̄1 from the FR technique was significantly higher than the 3.2 ± 0.4 % d ̄ 1 from the MB technique (P ˂ 0.05). Strong oceanic waves which were accompanied by the loss of seaweed thalli in the MB technique at Mkwiro between April and June led to significantly higher RGR in the FR than in the MB (P ˂ 0.05). The higher percentage herbivory, epiphytes, and susceptibility to ‘ice-ice’ (white and soft thallus) associated with K. alvarezii than E. denticulatum in both techniques led to the former having significantly lower RGRs than the latter. Further research on the stability of MB in deep water and accessibility of FR techniques is recommended prior to commercial adoption

Factors influencing vaccination coverage among children aged 2- 5 years in Msambweni sub-county, Kwale county-Kenya

Background: While vaccination currently averts an estimated 2-3 million deaths every year an estimated 21.8 million infants worldwide are still missing out on basic vaccines. In Kwale County, particularly Msambweni Sub County, vaccination coverage among under five children is 77% compared with recommended of 80% for rural and 90% urban.Objective: To determine factors influencing vaccination coverage among children aged two to five years in Msambweni Sub-County, Kwale County, Kenya.Study Design: A descriptive cross-sectional studyStudy Setting: Four wards of Msambweni Sub-County, Kwale County, KenyaStudy Subjects/participants: A total of 399 households were selected using Probability Proportional to Size sampling in the 4 wards. Systematic sampling technique was employed, and 11 health workers were interviewed, within the Wards. Data was collected using structured questionnaires through door to door visits. Observation checklist was used to supplement data.Results: Fully/complete vaccination coverage was 63.7% while specific antigen were as follows: BCG - 87%, Pentavalent 1- 82%, Pentavalent 2 - 82.5%, and Pentavalent 3 -80% and measles- 65.6%. Mothers/caregivers who rated vaccination not very importance were OR=0.64(95% CI 0.43 to 0.97) P=0.037, while mothers /caregivers age was significantly associate with unimmunized where OR=0.39(95% CI 0.18 to 0.65) P=0.001.Conclusion: The proportion of fully vaccination children was far below the WHO’s target of 80% however, measles coverage remains low. Knowledge on the importance of vaccination, numbers of living children, side effect of vaccine and mothers /caregivers age were significant associated with vaccination coverage. Therefore, interventions need to focus on these factors to improve vaccination coverage in future

Physiological plastic responses to acute NH4+-N toxicity in Myriophyllum spicatum L. cultured in high and low nutrient conditions

Eutrophication alters biological and physical characteristics of aquatic freshwater ecosystems, and different macrophytes exhibit variable capacities to tolerate the subsequent stress factors. Myriophyllum spicatum is one of the most eutrophication tolerant submerged macrophyte species. M. spicatum from Fuxian (oligotrophic) and Xingyun (eutrophic) lakes, in South West China, were cultured in water conditions corresponding to their origin and the alternative trophic state (4 treatments) for a year. Each treatment was exposed to NH4+-N (0, 5, 10, 50, 100, and 200 mg/L) for five days (24 treatments) to investigate the effect of the sources and acute NH4+-N enrichment on photosynthetic performance. Both sources and NH4+-N affected photosynthetic performance, and eutrophic source plants in high nutrients and oligotrophic source plants in low nutrients exhibited higher NH4+-N tolerance. High nutrient cultured individuals had higher leaf number, branching, and heights. There were trade-offs between NH4+-N tolerance in turbid high nutrient conditions and photosynthetic performance in low nutrient conditions with high irradiance. Oligotrophic source plants in low nutrients had the highest chlorophyll a levels at = 50 mg/L and >= 5 mg/L, respectively. Individuals growing in eutrophic conditions could be prone to higher damage in the field owing to potentially weaker stem and leaf biomechanical properties, because of carbohydrate and energy intensive NH4+-N detoxification in higher NH4+-N conditions. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Spatial Variation in Growth and Mortality Parameters of the Marbled Parrotfish, Leptoscarus Vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) on Different Reefs Along the Kenyan Coast

Growth and mortality variations of Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) was studied among six reef sites exposed to different fishing pressure in coastal Kenya in order to test the hypothesis of phenotypic plasticity. Monthly fish samples were obtained from marine parks (protected or no-take areas), marine reserves (partially protected areas) and non-protected reefs from May 2011 to April 2013. Measurements for total lengths (cm) and body weights (g) were recorded. Growth (K, L∞) and mortality (Z, M, F) parameters of the species were determined using the ELEFAN I program and compared between sites. Results showed higher asymptotic length (L∞) esƟmate (~ 31 cm) for parrotfish from the reserve site and lowest estimate (26-27 cm) from the marine park site indicating that the potential for growth is influenced by factors other than levels of protection. Fish from park sites had equal but lowest growth rates (K yr-1) of 0.46 compared to 1.73 ± 0.11 and 1.36 ± 0.84 for fish from non-protected and reserve sites, respectively. As expected, total mortality estimates (Z yr-1) were lower for protected areas (1.69-1.96) and higher for reserve (2.87-9.15) and non-protected (4.39-5.30) sites. This study showed divergence of growth parameters of a coral reef fish exposed to different levels of fishing pressure, thereby providing insights into the possibility of utilizing the parameters as indicators of environmental stress

Phenotypic divergence in reproductive traits of the marbled parrotfish, Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824), among reefs of varying protection levels in Kenya

Phenotypic divergence in the reproductive traits of the marbled parrotfish (Leptoscarus vaigiensis) was studied among six reef sites exposed to varying levels of fishing pressure in coastal Kenya from May 2011 to April 2012. Baited fish traps were used to capture fish within two no-take marine parks (Malindi and Watamu) and their adjacent reserves that allow regulated fishing. Fish samples from two non-protected reefs (Kanamai and Vipingo) were obtained from fishers. Reproductive attributes (fecundity, oocyte size and length at first maturity) of the species were determined and compared between sites. Results showed significant differences in fecundity between sites (F = 3.742, P = 0.004) with higher mean (± SD) fecundity for fish in the parks (110,128 ± 75,492) and reserves (145,570 ± 88,873) compared to those in non-protected sites (76,250 ± 55,337). Further, Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) analysis using fecundity estimates clustered sites based on their protection levels. Fish in non-protected sites have equivalent to higher fecundities at smaller sizes relative to larger fishes from protected sites. A comparison of length at first maturity (L50) between sites indicated that females from non-protected sites matured at lower lengths (11.2 cm, 11.1-11.4 cm, 95% CI) compared to those from park (16.7 cm, 15.7-17.3 cm, 95% CI) and reserve (16.8 cm, 16.6-17.1 cm, 95% CI) sites. Overall, the results indicated some level of phenotypic divergence between sites, which is likely to be an adaptive strategy for enhancing resilience to fishing pressure and helping to sustain local populations. The real causes of this divergence cannot be partitioned between fishing mortality, genetic variability or habitat- induced variations. Nonetheless, the data provides a basis for future studies on the causal factors for the observed divergence in life-history traits of the species between reefs