Chapter 5-Parkinson's disease - A role of non-enzymatic posttranslational modifications in disease onset and progression?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a still incurable neurodegenerative disorder with a highly complex etiology. While about 10% of cases are associated with single-gene mutations, the majority of PD is thought to originate from a combination of factors such as environmental impact, lifestyle and aging. Even though investigations into the genetically caused cases have uncovered major pathomechanisms of the disease there still exists a wide gap concerning the molecular impact of the other risk factors. All of them are known to have a major impact on the oxidative burden of the cell and thus strongly influence the non-enzymatic posttranslational modifications (nePTMs) of proteins. These modifications are by now known to dramatically alter the stability of proteins, their interactomes, and also their functions. However, the knowledge of nePTMs and their possible causative role in the pathoetiology of PD is just starting to emerge again guided by research on PD-associated genes. In this short review, we will thus concentrate on known nePTMs of two PD-associated genes, SCNA and DJ-1, and discuss their role in the pathoetiology of PD. In the future, it will, however, be essential to unravel the complete environmental proteome to understand the impact of nePTMs on PD etiology. This might open up new pathways urgently needed to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic tools for this still incurable disease

Engrailed 1 deficiency induces changes in ciliogenesis during human neuronal differentiation

A key pathological feature of Parkinson's Disease (PD) is the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DAns) in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Considering the major role of EN1 in the development and maintenance of these DAns and the implications from En1 mouse models, it is highly interesting to study the molecular and protective effect of EN1 also in a human cellular model. Therefore, we generated EN1 knock-out (ko) human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSCs) lines and analyzed these during neuronal differentiation. Although the EN1 ko didn't interfere with neuronal differentiation and generation of tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH+) neurons per se, the neurons exhibited shorter neurites. Furthermore, mitochondrial respiration, as well as mitochondrial complex I abundance was significantly reduced in fully differentiated neurons. To understand the implications of an EN1 ko during differentiation, we performed a transcriptome analysis of human neuronal precursor cells (hNPCs) which unveiled alterations in cilia-associated pathways. Further analysis of ciliary morphology revealed an elongation of primary cilia in EN1-deficient hNPCs. Besides, also Wnt signaling pathways were severely affected. Upon stimulating hNPCs with Wnt which drastically increased EN1 expression in WT lines, the phenotypes concerning mitochondrial function and cilia were exacerbated in EN1 ko hNPCs. They failed to enhance the expression of the complex I subunits NDUFS1 and 3, and now displayed a reduced mitochondrial respiration. Furthermore, Wnt stimulation decreased ciliogenesis in EN1 ko hNPCs but increased ciliary length even further. This further highlights the relevance of primary cilia next to mitochondria for the functionality and correct maintenance of human DAns and provides new possibilities to establish neuroprotective therapies for PD

A reversible state of hypometabolism in a human cellular model of sporadic Parkinson's disease

Sporadic Parkinson's Disease (sPD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by multiple genetic and environmental factors. Mitochondrial dysfunction is one contributing factor, but its role at different stages of disease progression is not fully understood. Here, we showed that neural precursor cells and dopaminergic neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) from sPD patients exhibited a hypometabolism. Further analysis based on transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics identified the citric acid cycle, specifically the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (OGDHC), as bottleneck in sPD metabolism. A follow-up study of the patients approximately 10 years after initial biopsy demonstrated a correlation between OGDHC activity in our cellular model and the disease progression. In addition, the alterations in cellular metabolism observed in our cellular model were restored by interfering with the enhanced SHH signal transduction in sPD. Thus, inhibiting overactive SHH signaling may have potential as neuroprotective therapy during early stages of sPD. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a contributing factor in Parkinson's disease. Here the authors carry out a multilayered omics analysis of Parkinson's disease patient-derived neuronal cells, which reveals a reversible hypometabolism mediated by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency, which is correlated with disease progression in the donating patients

A powerful transgenic tool for fate mapping and functional analysis of newly generated neurons

Background: Lack of appropriate tools and techniques to study fate and functional integration of newly generated neurons has so far hindered understanding of neurogenesis' relevance under physiological and pathological conditions. Current analyses are either dependent on mitotic labeling, for example BrdU-incorporation or retroviral infection, or on the detection of transient immature neuronal markers. Here, we report a transgenic mouse model (DCX CreERT2) for time-resolved fate analysis of newly generated neurons. This model is based on the expression of a tamoxifen-inducible Cre recombinase under the control of a doublecortin (DCX) promoter, which is specific for immature neuronal cells in the CNS. Results: In the DCX-CreERT2 transgenic mice, expression of CreERT2 was restricted to DCX+ cells. In the CNS of transgenic embryos and adult DCX-CreERT2 mice, tamoxifen administration caused the transient translocation of CreERT2 to the nucleus, allowing for the recombination of loxP-flanked sequences. In our system, tamoxifen administration at E14.5 resulted in reporter gene activation throughout the developing CNS of transgenic embryos. In the adult CNS, neurogenic regions were the primary sites of tamoxifen-induced reporter gene activation. In addition, reporter expression could also be detected outside of neurogenic regions in cells physiologically expressing DCX (e. g. piriform cortex, corpus callosum, hypothalamus). Four weeks after recombination, the vast majority of reporter-expressing cells were found to co-express NeuN, revealing the neuronal fate of DCX+ cells upon maturation. Conclusions: This first validation demonstrates that our new DCX-CreERT2 transgenic mouse model constitutes a powerful tool to investigate neurogenesis, migration and their long-term fate of neuronal precursors. Moreover, it allows for a targeted activation or deletion of specific genes in neuronal precursors and will thereby contribute to unravel the molecular mechanisms controlling neurogenesis

Cellular Repair Strategies in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, affecting 0.7% of the elderly population (defined as over 65 years of age). PD is clinically characterized by resting tremor, muscular rigidity, hypokinesia and postural instability. These motor symptoms result largely from the deficiency or dysfunction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Histopathological analysis reveals depletion of dopaminergic neurons as well as eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (Lewy bodies) in surviving neurons of the substantia nigra and other brain regions. The molecular pathogenesis is linked to protein misfolding by compromised alpha-synuclein and/or related proteins (synucleinopathy). Therefore, successful therapy of motor symptoms aims for the restoration of dopaminergic neurotransmission. Pharmacological drug treatment is usually effective only at an early stage of the disease but cannot halt progressive neuronal degeneration. With recent developments in stem cell technology, cell repair or replacement approaches came into focus. Here, we review new therapeutic strategies resulting from the innate propensity of the adult brain to generate new neurons, either by pharmacological stimulation of endogenous adult stem cell population or exogenous cell transplantation modalities

Cellular repair strategies in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, affecting 0.7% of the elderly population (defined as over 65 years of age). PD is clinically characterized by resting tremor, muscular rigidity, hypokinesia and postural instability. These motor symptoms result largely from the deficiency or dysfunction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Histopathological analysis reveals depletion of dopaminergic neurons as well as eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (Lewy bodies) in surviving neurons of the substantia nigra and other brain regions. The molecular pathogenesis is linked to protein misfolding by compromised alpha-synuclein and/or related proteins (synucleinopathy). Therefore, successful therapy of motor symptoms aims for the restoration of dopaminergic neurotransmission. Pharmacological drug treatment is usually effective only at an early stage of the disease but cannot halt progressive neuronal degeneration. With recent developments in stem cell technology, cell repair or replacement approaches came into focus. Here, we review new therapeutic strategies resulting from the innate propensity of the adult brain to generate new neurons, either by pharmacological stimulation of endogenous adult stem cell population or exogenous cell transplantation modalities

FGFR1 is independently required in both developing mid- and hindbrain for sustained response to isthmic signals

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are signaling molecules of the isthmic organizer, which regulates development of the midbrain and cerebellum. Tissue-specific inactivation of one of the FGF receptor (FGFR) genes, Fgfr1, in the midbrain and rhombomere 1 of the hindbrain of mouse embryos results in deletion of the inferior colliculi in the posterior midbrain and vermis of the cerebellum. Analyses of both midbrain–hindbrain and midbrain-specific Fgfr1 mutants suggest that after establishment of the isthmic organizer, FGFR1 is needed for continued response to the isthmic signals, and that it has direct functions on both sides of the organizer. In addition, FGFR1 appears to modify cell adhesion properties critical for maintaining a coherent organizing center. This may be achieved by regulating expression of specific cell-adhesion molecules at the midbrain–hindbrain border

The Parkinson’s disease-linked Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is required for insulin-stimulated translocation of GLUT4

Abstract Mutations within Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are associated with late-onset Parkinson’s disease. The physiological function of LRRK2 and molecular mechanism underlying the pathogenic role of LRRK2 mutations remain uncertain. Here, we investigated the role of LRRK2 in intracellular signal transduction. We find that deficiency of Lrrk2 in rodents affects insulin-dependent translocation of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4). This deficit is restored during aging by prolonged insulin-dependent activation of protein kinase B (PKB, Akt) and Akt substrate of 160 kDa (AS160), and is compensated by elevated basal expression of GLUT4 on the cell surface. Furthermore, we find a crucial role of Rab10 phosphorylation by LRRK2 for efficient insulin signal transduction. Translating our findings into human cell lines, we find comparable molecular alterations in fibroblasts from Parkinson’s patients with the known pathogenic G2019S LRRK2 mutation. Our results highlight the role of LRRK2 in insulin-dependent signalling with potential therapeutic implications