Sex Differences in Maximal Oxygen Uptake Adjusted for Skeletal Muscle Mass in Amateur Endurance Athletes: A Cross Sectional Study

Male athletes tend to outperform female athletes in several endurance sports. Maximum cardiac output can be estimated by maximal oxygen consumption (V˙O2max), and it has been established that men present V˙O2max values about 20% higher than women. Although sex differences in V˙O2max have already been well studied, few studies have assessed sex differences with regard to muscle oxidative capacity. The aim of this study was to compare aerobic muscle quality, accessed by V˙O2max and adjusted by lower limb lean mass, between male and female amateur triathletes. The study also aimed to compare sex differences according to V˙O2 submaximal values assessed at ventilatory thresholds. A total of 57 participants (23 women and 34 men), who had been training for Olympic-distance triathlon races, underwent body composition evaluation by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and performed a cardiorespiratory maximal test on a treadmill. Male athletes had significantly higher V˙O2max, both absolutely and when adjusted to body mass. Conversely, when V˙O2max was adjusted for lean mass, there was no significant difference between sexes. The same was observed at submaximal exercise intensities. In conclusion, differences in V˙O2max adjusted to body mass but not lean mass may explain, at least in part, sex differences in performance in triathlons, marathons, cycling, and other endurance sports

Physiological Features of Olympic-Distance Amateur Triathletes, as Well as Their Associations with Performance in Women and Men: A Cross–Sectional Study

The purpose of this study was to verify the physiological and anthropometric determinants of triathlon performance in female and male athletes. This study included 40 triathletes (20 male and 20 female). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to assess body composition, and an incremental cardiopulmonary test was used to assess physiological variables. A questionnaire about physical training habits was also completed by the athletes. Athletes competed in the Olympic-distance triathlon race. For the female group, the total race time can be predicted by V̇O2max (β = −131, t = −6.61, p < 0.001), lean mass (β = −61.4, t = −2.66, p = 0.018), and triathlon experience (β = −886.1, t = −3.01, p = 0.009) (r2 = 0.825, p < 0.05). For the male group, the total race time can be predicted by maximal aerobic speed (β = −294.1, t = −2.89, p = 0.010) and percentage of body fat (β = 53.6, t = 2.20, p = 0.042) (r2 = 0.578, p < 0.05). The variables that can predict the performance of men are not the same as those that can predict the triathlon performance of women. These data can help athletes and coaches develop performance-enhancing strategies

"Impact of aging on maximal oxygen uptake adjusted for lower limb lean mass, total body mass, and absolute values in runners"

Performance in endurance sports decreases with aging, which has been primarily attributed to cardiovascular and musculoskeletal aging; however, there is still no clear information on the factors that are most affected by aging. The aim of this study was to compare two groups of runners ( 50 years of age) according to their absolute, weight-adjusted maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O$_{2}$max), lower limb lean mass-adjusted V̇O$_{2}$max, ventilatory threshold, and respiratory compensation point (RCP). A total of 78 male recreational long-distance runners were divided into Group 1 (38.12 ± 6.87 years) and Group 2 (57.55 ± 6.14 years). Participants were evaluated for body composition, V̇O$_{2}$max, VT, and RCP. Group 1 showed higher absolute and body mass-adjusted V̇O$_{2}$max (4.60 ± 0.57 l·min$^{-1}$ and 61.95 ± 8.25 ml·kg$^{-1}$·min$^{-1}$, respectively) than Group 2 (3.77 ± 0.56 l·min$^{-1}$ and 51.50 ± 10.22 ml·kg$^{-1}$·min$^{-1}$, respectively), indicating a significant difference (p < 0.001, d =  - 1.46 and p < 0.001, d =  - 1.16). Correspondingly, Group 1 showed a significantly higher lower limb lean mass-adjusted V̇O$_{2}$max (251.72 ± 29.60 ml·kgLM$^{-1}$·min$^{-1}$) than Group 2 (226.36 ± 43.94 ml·kgLM$^{-1}$·min$^{-1}$) (p = 0.008, d =  - 0.71). VT (%V̇O$_{2}$max) (p = 0.19, d = 0.19) and RCP (%V̇O$_{2}$max) (p = 0.24, d = 0.22) did not differ between the groups. These findings suggest that both variables that are limited by central or peripheral conditions are negatively affected by aging, but the magnitude of the effect is higher in variables limited by central conditions. These results contribute to our understanding of how aging affects master runners

Effect of Two Years of COVID-19 Pandemic on Maximum Oxygen Uptake among Amateur Runners: A Prospective Study

In this prospective study we compared the maximum oxygen uptake (V̇O$_2$max), physical activity levels, and time spent on a sedentary lifestyle measured before the COVID-19 pandemic period (January 2020) with that measured two years after (January 2022). Thirty-four male runners (46.8 ± 11.7 years) answered a questionnaire that consisted of personal data, health conditions, and current level of physical activity. They participated in cardiopulmonary maximal exercise tests for V̇O$_2$max assessment between January 2020 and January 2022. We observed a significant decrease (16.7 ± 7.3%) in V̇O$_2$max in January 2022 compared to January 2020 (p<0.001, d=2.152). Despite no change in physical activity levels between the two evaluations (p=0.07, d=0.325) being recorded, there was a reduction in the time dedicated to performing vigorous-intensity activities (p=0.03, d=0.035), a significant increase in walking time (p=0.04, d= -0.42), and a significant increase in the weekly sitting time (p<0.001, d=0.77). The observed change in the physical activity pattern during the COVID-19 pandemic (increased sitting time and decreased vigorous activities) negatively impacted the functional capacity of the amateur runners, as shown by the V̇O$_2$max assessment. Therefore there is a need to reduce sedentary behavior, such as sitting time throughout the day, in addition to the importance to increase the physical activity pattern

Amateur Female Athletes Perform the Running Split of a Triathlon Race at Higher Relative Intensity than the Male Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study

Maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max), ventilatory threshold (VT) and respiratory compensation point (RCP) can be used to monitor the training intensity and the race strategy, and the elucidation of the specificities existing between the sexes can be interesting for coaches and athletes. The aim of the study was to compare ventilatory threshold (VT), respiratory compensation point (RCP), and the percentage of the maximal aerobic speed (MAS) that can be maintained in a triathlon race between sexes. Forty-one triathletes (22 men and 19 women), 42.1 ± 8.4 (26 to 60) years old, that raced the same Olympic triathlon underwent a cardiorespiratory maximal treadmill test to assess their VT, RPC, and MAS, and race speed. The maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) (54.0 ± 5.1 vs. 49.8 ± 7.7 mL/kg/min, p < 0.001) and MAS (17 ± 2 vs. 15 ± 2 km/h, p = 0.001) were significantly higher in male than in female athletes. Conversely, there were no sex differences according to the percentage of V˙O2max reached at VT (74.4 ± 4.9 vs. 76.1 ± 5.4%, p = 0.298) and RCP (89.9 ± 3.6 vs. 90.6 ± 4.0%, p = 0.560). The mean speed during the race did not differ between sexes (12.1 ± 1.7 km/h and 11.7 ± 1.8 km/h, p = 0.506, respectively). Finally, men performed the running split at a lower percentage of speed at RCP than women (84.0 ± 8.7 vs. 91.2 ± 7.0%, respectively, p = 0.005). Therefore, male and female athletes accomplished the running split in an Olympic triathlon distance at distinct relative intensities, as female athletes run at a higher RCP percentage

Impact of aging on maximal oxygen uptake in female runners and sedentary controls

The present study aimed to compare V̇O$_{2}$max (absolute, adjusted to total body mass, and adjusted to lean mass) in recreational runners and sedentary women  50 yr and verify the effect of aging and physical activity level on the three types of V̇O$_{2}$ max expression. The study included 147 women:85 runners (45.7 ± 14.1 yr) and 62 sedentary controls (48.8 ± 9.8 yr). They were subjected to cardiopulmonary exercise testing for V̇O$_{2}$ max measurement and a body composition test by dual-emission X-ray absorptiometry system. V̇O$_{2}$max were expressed as absolute values (L/min), relative to total body mass values (mL/kg/min), and relative to lean mass values (mL/kgLM/min). The two-way analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction [F(2,131) = 4.43, p < 0.001] and effects of age group [F(2,131) = 32.79, p < 0.001] and physical activity group [F(2,131) = 55.64, p < 0.001] on V̇O$_{2}$max (mL/min). V̇O$_{2}$max (mL/kg/min) and V̇O$_{2}$ max (mL/kgLM/min) were significantly influenced by age and physical activity levels. The multiple regression model explains 76.2 % of the dependent variable V̇O$_{2}$max (mL/kg/min), age (β = -0.335, t = -7.841, p < 0.001), and physical activity group (β = -0.784, t = -18.351, p < 0.001). In conclusion, female runners had higher V̇O$_{2}$ max values than sedentary women at all ages, even though aging has a greater impact on V̇O$_{2}$ max in the runners group. In addition to cardiorespiratory fitness, women's metabolic lean mass function, as measured by V̇O$_{2}$max adjusted by lean mass, is significantly influenced by aging. Finally, physical activity has a greater impact on V̇O$_{2}$ max levels than aging

Efeito de dois anos da pandemia de COVID-19 no nível de condicionamento físico de indivíduos saudáveis

A pandemia de COVID-19 gerou, para além dos efeitos na saúde dos indivíduos infectados, uma série de outros efeitos negativos, inclusive na população não infectada. Aumento dos níveis de estresse, ansiedade, depressão e redução dos níveis de atividade física estão entre esses efeitos. Os efeitos negativos da redução do nível de atividade física são extremamente preocupantes, uma vez que indivíduos pouco ativos apresentam baixo nível de condicionamento cardiorrespiratório, que, por sua vez, está relacionado com maior risco de morbidade e mortalidade por doenças crônico degenerativas, tais como: diabetes, obesidade e doenças cardiovasculares. Apesar de sabido que o nível de atividade física diminuiu durante a pandemia, não sabemos a magnitude desse impacto no nível de condicionamento cardiorrespiratório. O objetivo do presente estudo foi comparar o nível de condicionamento cardiorrespiratório, a partir do consumo máximo de oxigênio ( VO2máx) em corredores de rua entre janeiro de 2020 e janeiro 2022. Participaram do estudo 34 homens (46,8 ± 44,7 anos) classificados como muito ativos antes da pandemia. Os indivíduos responderam a um questionário sobre o nível de atividade física, e foram submetidos a um teste de esforço incremental máximo para mensuração do VO2máx nos dois períodos de avaliação. Apesar de não ter havido alteração nos níveis de atividade física geral entre as duas avaliações (p=0,07; d=0,325), os resultados evidenciaram uma significativa redução do tempo dedicado à realização de atividades de intensidade vigorosa (p=0,03; d=0,035), aumento significativo do tempo de caminhada (p=0,04; d=-0,42) e aumento significativo no tempo sentado semanal (p<0,001; d=0,77). Concomitantemente, houve queda significativa (16,7± 7,3%) do VO2máx entre em janeiro de 2020 e janeiro de 2022 (p<0,001; d=2.152). A alteração observada no padrão de atividade física durante a pandemia COVID-19 (diminuição das atividade vigorosas e aumento da caminhada e do tempo sentado) impactou negativamente a capacidade funcional dos indivíduos, o que provoca aumento do risco de doenças crônico degenerativas, de dependência física e de mortalidade. Desta forma, torna-se muito importante que programas de atividade física sejam incentivados para a população a fim de minimizar os efeitos negativos secundários da pandemia de COVID-19.The COVID-19 pandemic generated, in addition to the effects on the health of infected individuals, a series of other negative effects, including on the uninfected population. Increased levels of stress, anxiety, depression and reduced levels of physical activity are among these effects. The negative effects of reducing the level of physical activity are extremely worrying, since less active individuals have a low level of cardiorespiratory accommodation, which, in turn, is related to a higher risk of morbidity and mortality due to degenerative infectious diseases, such as: diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Despite knowing that the level of physical activity suffered during the pandemic, we do not know the magnitude of this impact on the level of cardiorespiratory accommodation. The aim of the present study was to compare the level of cardiorespiratory fitness ( V . O2máx) in street runners between January 2020 and January 2022. The study included 34 men (46.8 ± 44.7 years) classified as very active before the pandemic. The individuals answered a questionnaire about their level of physical activity, and underwent a maximal incremental effort test to measure the V . O2max in the two assessment periods. Although there was no change in the levels of general physical activity between the two assessments (p=0.07, d=0.325), the results showed a significant reduction in the time dedicated to performing vigorous-intensity activities (p=0.03, d=0.035), significant increase in walking time (p=0.04, d= -0.42) and significant increase in weekly sitting time (p<0.001, d=0.77). At the same time, there was a significant decrease (16.7±7.3%) in V . O2max between January 2020 and January 2022 (p<0.001, d=2,152). The change observed in the physical activity pattern during the COVID-19 pandemic (decrease in vigorous activities and increased walking and sitting time) negatively impacted the functional capacity of individuals, which causes an increased risk of chronic degenerative diseases, physical dependence and mortality. In this way, it becomes very important that physical activity programs be encouraged for the population in order to minimize the negative secondary effects of the COVID-19 pandemic

Physiological Features of Olympic-Distance Amateur Triathletes, as Well as Their Associations with Performance in Women and Men: A Cross–Sectional Study

The purpose of this study was to verify the physiological and anthropometric determinants of triathlon performance in female and male athletes. This study included 40 triathletes (20 male and 20 female). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to assess body composition, and an incremental cardiopulmonary test was used to assess physiological variables. A questionnaire about physical training habits was also completed by the athletes. Athletes competed in the Olympic-distance triathlon race. For the female group, the total race time can be predicted by V̇O2max (β = −131, t = −6.61, p p = 0.018), and triathlon experience (β = −886.1, t = −3.01, p = 0.009) (r2 = 0.825, p p = 0.010) and percentage of body fat (β = 53.6, t = 2.20, p = 0.042) (r2 = 0.578, p < 0.05). The variables that can predict the performance of men are not the same as those that can predict the triathlon performance of women. These data can help athletes and coaches develop performance-enhancing strategies

Running economy in long-distance runners is positively affected by running experience and negatively by aging

Introduction: The maximum oxygen uptake (V˙O2max), the maximum rate of oxygen that can be sustained before the onset of blood lactate accumulation, and the metabolic cost of locomotion are the main physiological factors associated with long-distance running performance. The latter is known as the running economy. Generally, runners reach peak performance in long races between 25 and 30 years of age, with a progressive decline occurring thereafter. However, it is not known whether the running economy is affected or how it is affected by aging. Aim: To investigate the effect of age and years of running experience on the running economy of amateur long-distance runners aged 20-80 years. Methods: Sixty-nine recreational long-distance runners, divided into five age groups according to decade of life, participated in this study: Group 1 (n= 9) 27.2 ± 1.3 years, Group 2 (n= 18) 35.9 ± 2.2 years, Group 3 (n= 17) 43.4 ± 2.8 years, Group 4 (n= 17) 53.0 ± 2.3 years, and Group 5 (n= 8) 65.5 ± 2.9 years. For running economy assessment, oxygen cost (OC) and energy cost (EC) were measured. Furthermore, the participants were interviewed on their running experience. Results: For EC, the two independent variables composing the regression model were age (ß = 0.703, t= 5.443, p < 0.001) and running experience (ß = -0.230, t = -1.785, p= 0.07), and 34% of the energy cost variation can be explained by these two factors. EC and OC were compared among the groups. There were no significant differences between Groups 1 and 2 (p= 0.999), Groups 1 and 3 (p= 1.000), and Groups 1 and 4 (p= 0.528). However, Group 5 had a significantly higher energy cost than Group 1 (p < 0.001), Group 2 (p < 0.001), Group 3 (p < 0.001) and Group 4 (p < 0.001). Conclusion: The number of years of running experience has a positive effect on running economy, but it is insufficient to overcome the negative effect of the aging process. Furthermore, running economy was significantly worse in participants aged ≥60 years compared with that in younger athletes. Keywords: Aging; Performance; Running economy; Running experience