Latin parts of speech in historical and typological context

It is usually assumed that Latin parts of speech cannot be properly applied to other languages, especially outside the Indo-European domain. We will see, however, that the traditional distinction into eight parts of speech is established only in the late period of the classical school of grammar, while originally parts of speech varied in number and in type according to different grammarians, as well as to different periods and genres. Comparisons will be drawn on the one hand with parts of speech in the Greek and Indian tradition, and on the other with genetically unrelated languages where parts of speech - notably adjectives and adverbs - are scarcely grammaticalized. This may be revealing of the manner in which the ancients used to categorize their languag

Pragmatic implications of head and dependent marking

Head marking and dependent marking are considered to be major parameters of syntactic diversity, and are traditionally related to the geographical distribution of languages. Some areas such as Standard Average European favor dependent marking, while head marking is preferred in the New World. However, head and dependent marking may also occur in the same language, either in different domains of grammar or - more interestingly - in competing constructions that are used to convey the same propositional content. In Italian, for example, the choice of head or dependent marking is strongly conditioned by pragmatic factors. Head marking mainly expresses topical information, while the focus is usually conveyed by dependent marking. Moreover, head marking is preferably used in the spoken informal language, while dependent marking prevails in the written formal register. This indicates that structurally different language types may be similar in the organization of pragmatic informatio

On degrammaticalization: Controversial points and possible explanations

This paper discusses the problem of degrammaticalization, that is, the exceptions to the unidirectionality of grammaticalization. After analyzing the criteria that allow us to distinguish between various instances of counter-directional change, two principles underlying degrammaticalization are identified; one is related to the type of language and the other to the type of target structures in which degrammaticalization occurs. Firstly, the targets of degrammaticalization are usually closed-class parts of speech with an abstract semantic component. Secondly, the languages in which counter-directional grammatical changes occur turn out to be deprived of an elaborate fusional morphology. These findings may also have an impact on the theoretical conception of grammaticalization, some of whose definitional properties are discussed. The paper ends with a discussion of a more controversial point, namely, counter-directional changes by folk etymology rather than by etymology proper

Garnet, the archetypal cubic mineral, grows tetragonal

Garnet is the archetypal cubic mineral, occurring in a wide variety of rock types in Earth’s crust and upper mantle. Owing to its prevalence, durability and compositional diversity, garnet is used to investigate a broad range of geological processes. Although birefringence is a characteristic feature of rare Ca–Fe3+ garnet and Ca-rich hydrous garnet, the optical anisotropy that has occasionally been documented in common (that is, anhydrous Ca–Fe2+–Mg–Mn) garnet is generally attributed to internal strain of the cubic structure. Here we show that common garnet with a non-cubic (tetragonal) crystal structure is much more widespread than previously thought, occurring in low-temperature, high-pressure metamorphosed basalts (blueschists) from subduction zones and in low-grade metamorphosed mudstones (phyllites and schists) from orogenic belts. Indeed, a non-cubic symmetry appears to be typical of common garnet that forms at low temperatures (<450 °C), where it has a characteristic Fe–Ca-rich composition with very low Mg contents. We propose that, in most cases, garnet does not initially grow cubic. Our discovery indicates that the crystal chemistry and thermodynamic properties of garnet at low-temperature need to be re-assessed, with potential consequences for the application of garnet as an investigative tool in a broad range of geological environments

Multi-disciplinary insights from the First European Forum on Visceral Myopathy 2022 Meeting

Visceral myopathy is a rare, life-threatening disease linked to identified genetic mutations in 60% of cases. Mostly due to the dearth of knowledge regarding its pathogenesis, effective treatments are lacking. The disease is most commonly diagnosed in children with recurrent or persistent disabling episodes of functional intestinal obstruction, which can be life threatening, often requiring long-term parenteral or specialized enteral nutritional support. Although these interventions are undisputedly life-saving as they allow affected individuals to avoid malnutrition and related complications, they also seriously compromise their quality of life and can carry the risk of sepsis and thrombosis. Animal models for visceral myopathy, which could be crucial for advancing the scientific knowledge of this condition, are scarce. Clearly, a collaborative network is needed to develop research plans to clarify genotype–phenotype correlations and unravel molecular mechanisms to provide targeted therapeutic strategies. This paper represents a summary report of the first ‘European Forum on Visceral Myopathy’. This forum was attended by an international interdisciplinary working group that met to better understand visceral myopathy and foster interaction among scientists actively involved in the field and clinicians who specialize in care of people with visceral myopathy

Synthetic and analytic structures for tense and aspect in Indo-European

International audienc