Mind the gaps: how can food safety gaps be addressed in developing nations?

As global food systems integrate, to meet the demands of a growing global population, safe and healthy agriculture value-chains will be essential to maintaining public health worldwide. In many ways, the current global food production landscape is made up of “mice and men.” Meaning that the food sector within and across most countries includes both large-scale corporate agriculture production and varying degrees of small-scale agriculture production; the variation being the interpretation of small scale, which is highly dependent upon the country. This structure presents challenges for the creation of effective food safety systems in many countries, and can contribute to deficiencies in monitoring and control of foodborne hazards within agriculture value-chains. These deficiencies can lead to outbreaks of foodborne disease, impact customer acceptability, and lead to food waste and loss. Recent estimates by the World Health Organization (WHO) have determined that “the global burden of Foodborne Disease is comparable to those of the three major infectious diseases, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis” (Havelaar et al., 2015). This has solidified presumptions and indications that unsafe food production has major impacts on global public health, human and country productivity, and development outcomes. Furthermore, these findings pose the question: What is the role of food safety in global agriculture value-chain development, and how can improvements to global food safety improve agriculture productivity worldwide? The answer to this question may lead to innovative approaches to global food systems that will assist in producing enough safe and nutritious food to feed the world. The purpose of this article is to explore key concepts per- taining to food safety and the development of effective, effi- cient, and equitable food safety systems on a global scale. As the authors, we recognize that there are numerous factors involved in the topic of global food safety systems and food security. Due to this complexity, we have chosen to focus on a few concepts that we view as holding the most potential for impact, as well as directly influencing food safety and public health outcomes. Furthermore, based upon the readership of this journal, the article will also highlight the role of animal production in global food safety, as well as in creating healthy agriculture value-chains and healthy people

The Effects of Thawing Methods on Trained Sensory Evaluation of Beef Palatability Traits and Instrumental Measurements of Quality

Objective:Using beef strip loins steaks, evaluate six common thawing methods and assess the quality attributes through a trained panelist evaluation and an array of instrumental quality measures. Study Description:Paired Low Choice strip loins (n = 15) were collected from a beef packing facility. The paired loins were fabricated into 1-in steaks and blocked into six blocks of four steaks. Each block was assigned a different thawing method, and each steak within the block a test, then aged 21 days and frozen. Thaw methods consisted of the four USDA-approved thaw methods: refrigerator (REF), cold water (CW), microwave (MIC), cooking from frozen (COOK); and two methods commonly used by consumers: countertop (CT) and hot water (HW). Steaks assigned to REF were thawed in a refrigerator at 34–37°F for 24 hours prior to cooking. Steaks assigned to CW were thawed in individual containers of 34–37°F water for 24 hours prior to cooking. COOK steaks were cooked immediately upon removal from the freezer, while still in a frozen state. CT steaks were thawed at ambient temperature (68°F) for 5 hours. HW steaks were thawed in a sous vide machine set to 104°F for 20 minutes (± 2 minutes). MIC steaks were microwaved at 50% power for 3.5 minutes, flipped, and repeated in a retail microwave. Fifteen trained panels were performed, with eight panelists consuming six samples from the same loin. Each steak was cooked to a peak temperature of 160°F on clamshell style grills. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized block design. Results:As a whole, thawing method had a minimal impact on palatability There were no (P\u3e0.05) differences among thawing methods for initial juiciness, sustained juiciness, connective tissue, pressed juice percentage, L*(lightness), lipid oxidation, Warner-Bratzler shear force and slice shear force. For myofibrillar tenderness, COOK steaks were tougher (P\u3c0.05) than REF and CW. Also, MIC and COOK steaks were lower (P\u3c0.05) than CW and REF steaks for overall tenderness, while all other treat­ments were similar (P\u3e0.05). The COOK steaks were rated higher (P\u3c0.05) than all other treatments for beef flavor intensity. The MIC steaks had lower (P\u3c0.05) cooked a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values than REF, HW, and CW steaks, while CT samples had higher (P\u3c0.05) values than COOK and MIC. The MIC steaks had the highest (P\u3c0.05) cook loss, followed by COOK (P\u3c0.05), with all other treatments being similar (MIC\u3eCOOK\u3eCT = HN = CW = REF). MIC and HW had a higher (P\u3c0.05) thaw loss than CW, CT, and REF (MIC = HW\u3eCW = CT = REF). Moreover, MIC, COOK, and HW steaks had a higher (P\u3c0.05) percent total moisture loss than REF, CW, and CT. This increase in total moisture loss and thaw loss could indicate a total economic loss of steaks thawed using these methods. Lastly, COOK steaks had higher (P\u3c0.05) cooked expressible moisture than CT, CW, and REF. The Bottom Line:Consumers and food service establishments may use whichever thawing method is the most economical and convenient for them, as thawing method has minimal impact eating quality, although food safety should be the upmost concern

Evaluation of Fresh and Frozen Beef Strip Loins of Equal Aging Periods for Palatability Traits

Although studies evaluating freezing are prevalent, most have used varied postmortem aging times to facilitate study design. The lack of a comprehensive study evaluating equally aged fresh and frozen steaks prevents a true under-standing of the impact of freezing. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the eating quality and consumer perception differences between fresh and frozen beef steaks of 3 equal aging periods. Beef carcasses were selected from a processing plant on 2 kill dates 1 wk apart to allow for a 1-wk freezing period, fabricated, and aged for 21, 28, or 35 d. On the same day, all samples of equal aging periods were fed to consumer and trained sensory panelists, sheared for shear force, and powdered for lab assays. For consumer panels, the first 4 steaks were given with no additional information, whereas the last 4 steaks were served with the labels “previously frozen” or “fresh, never frozen.” The consumer panelists rated the frozen samples as more tender (P<0.05) than the fresh samples but found no other differences (P>0.05). Even when given additional information, the perception of quality was not impacted (P>0.05). Similarly, the trained panelists rated the frozen samples higher (P<0.05) than the fresh counterparts for overall tenderness, but the fresh samples scored higher (P<0.05) for initial and sustained juiciness. Supporting the sensory data, the frozen steaks had lower (P<0.05) shear force values regardless of the aging period. However, the fresh samples resulted in lower (P<0.05) purge and cook loss. Although some meat quality factors were impacted by freezing, the overall eating quality and perception of quality were not negatively impacted. Therefore, frozen meat should not be discounted due to the eating quality or perception of the quality of beef steaks

The Effects of Thawing Method on Consumer Palatability Ratings of Beef Strip Loin Steaks

Objective:The objective of this study was to determine palatability differences in beef strip loin steaks among various U.S. Department of Agriculture approved thawing methods and those commonly utilized by consumers. Study Description:Paired Low Choice beef strip loins (n=15) were collected and fabricated into six sections, each section was fabricated into 1-in steaks and assigned one of six thawing methods including: countertop, cook from frozen, cold water, hot water, microwave, and refrigerator. Steaks were cooked to an internal peak temperature of 160°F and consumers were given samples which they evaluated for juiciness, tenderness, flavor liking, overall liking, attribute acceptability, and perceived level of quality. Samples were rated on a 100-point scale with 0 indicating dry, tough, or dislike extremely, and 100 indicating extremely juicy, extremely tender, or like extremely. Results:For beef demographic data, consumers reported that the most important beef palatability trait was flavor with 56.7% of consumers indicating it as the most important. Tenderness was rated as the most important by 33.3% of consumers. Additionally, consumers reported the trait they experienced the most variability with was tenderness. Results of consumer sensory evaluation indicated that there were no differences (P\u3e0.05) among the six thaw methods for juiciness, tenderness, flavor, and overall liking. However, all treatments had an average rating of at least 57 for overall liking, indicating a high level of eating satisfaction. For all thaw methods, at least 82% of steaks were rated as overall acceptable. Additionally, for all thaw methods, consumers rated at least 79.1% of steaks acceptable for juiciness, tenderness, and flavor liking. Furthermore, thaw method did not have an impact (P\u3e0.05) on the perceived level of quality of samples. The Bottom Line:Beef strip loin steak palatability was not impacted by thawing method, and therefore consumers should use whichever thawing method is most convenient, or best suits their needs

Evaluation of Beef Top Sirloin Steaks of Four Quality Grades Cooked to Three Degrees of Doneness

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of USDA quality grade on beef eating quality of top sirloin steaks when cooked to multiple degrees of doneness (DOD). Beef top sirloin butts (N = 60; 15/quality grade) were collected to equally represent 4 quality grades [Prime, Top Choice (modest00 to moderate100), Low Choice, and Select]. Steaks were assigned to 1 of 3 DOD: rare (60°C), medium (71°C), and well-done (77°C). Steaks were allocated to either consumer sensory analysis, trained sensory analysis, fat and moisture analysis, or Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF). There were no interactions (P > 0.05) for all consumer ratings of palatability traits, indicating increases in DOD had the same impact across all quality grades. Prime steaks had greater (P medium > well-done). There was a quality grade × DOD interaction (P medium > well-done). Lastly, there was no quality grade by DOD interaction (P > 0.05) for Warner-Bratzler shear force. These results indicate that regardless of the DOD top sirloin steaks are cooked to, quality grade had minimal impact on palatability. Therefore, it is unnecessary for consumers, retailers, and foodservice to pay premium prices for higher quality top sirloin steaks, as the same eating experience will be provided

Evaluation of Thawing Curves of Beef Strip Loin Steaks Using Various Thawing Methods

Objective:The objective of this study was to evaluate and determine thaw rate and time of strip steaks thawed using methods that are recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and those commonly used by consumers. Study Description:Strip steaks collected from a beef packing facility were randomly assigned a thaw method. Initially, steaks were vacuum packaged and then frozen at -40°F until thawed. Two thawing methods were USDA-approved: thawing in a refrigerator (REF) and in cold water (CW); while the other two methods evaluated are commonly used by consumers: thawing on the countertop (CT) and in hot water (HW). The thawing temperatures were: REF at 35.6–37.4°F in the refrigerator; CW maintained at 35.6–37.4°F in water; CT at 68°F; and HW at 104°F. Temperatures of the steaks were recorded every 30 minutes for CW and REF, every 10 minutes for CT, and every thirty seconds for HW to determine the thaw time and rate. Results:Thawing time differed (P\u3c0.05) among treatments in this study (HWP\u3c0.05) among treatments with a similar trend (HWP\u3c0.05) from REF until 5 hours prior to thaw point, at which point the temperatures were similar (P\u3e0.05) for the remaining thawing period. Moreover, REF steaks were warmer (P\u3c0.05) than CW steaks from 13 to 5 hours prior to thaw point. In the final 5 hours, CW and REF steaks were similar (P\u3e0.05) in temperature. Furthermore, among all treatments, CT steaks were the coldest(P\u3c0.05) from 5 to 2 hours prior to thaw point. However, in the final 2 hours, CT steaks were at similar (P\u3e0.05) temperatures as CW and REF. Due to the short period of thawing time and the observed rapid thawing rate, HW samples were the coldest (P\u3c0.05) in the final 10 minutes prior to thaw point. The Bottom Line:Of the four thaw methods utilized in this study, the safest methods are those approved by the USDA (CW and REF). Thawing meat on the countertop or in hot water may be efficient and convenient methods for consumers, but it is important to take the extra time to thaw meat properly for safety

Pork Quality Attributes and Eating Characteristics Among Different Premium and Commodity Pork Loin Programs

Pork branding is a common tool used to differentiate products based on quality to assist consumers in making purchasing decisions. Most pork processers have premium pork programs with different parameters related to color, mar-bling, and other quality factors, though many differences in specific criteria exist among programs. The objective of this study was to assess differences in pork quality and the associated eating experience of different premium and commodity pork loin programs available in the retail market. Loins (n=30/brand) from 7 branded (PRE A, B, C, D, and E) and commodity (COM A and B) programs were acquired and fabricated at 14–15 d post-box date into 2.54-cm chops for visual color, marbling, pH, intramuscular fat, drip loss, purge loss, shear force, and trained sensory panels. Overall, few differences were found among products for most of the quality traits evaluated. One commodity brand, COM B, had higher (P<0.05) loin L* values and chop L* values and had lower chop a* values, visual color scores, pH, and drip loss than other treatments, but it did not differ (P>0.05) in initial juiciness, sustained juiciness, or any tenderness measurement. The only quality measurement that was associated with changes in eating experience was shear force value, with the PRE C product having the highest (P<0.05) Warner-Brazler shear force and slice shear force values and the associated lowest (P<0.05) myofibrillar tenderness and overall tenderness ratings in the sensory panels. There were no differences (P>0.05) among any treatment for initial juiciness, sustained juiciness, and pork flavor intensity. The results from this study indicate that the range of pork quality differences sold domestically among the evaluated premium and commodity programs is minimal and does not result in associated differences in eating experience

Do Published Cooking Temperatures Correspond with Consumer and Chef Perceptions of Steak Degrees of Doneness?

The objective of this study was to assess consumer and chef perceptions and knowledge of beef degrees of doneness (DOD) as well as to measure the changes in cooked color over time related to DOD. Steaks from strip loins (M. longissimus lumborum) from each of 5 quality treatments were used for this study. Steaks were cooked to an endpoint temperature of either very-rare (54°C), rare (60°C), medium-rare (63°C), medium (71°C), well-done (77°C), or very well-done (82°C). L*, a*, and b* were evaluated at 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 min post-cutting and digital pictures were taken immediately on an internal surface of the steak. Digital surveys for the evaluation of the images of the cooked steaks were created for consumers and chefs. There were time × DOD interactions (P 0.05) for DOD responses for steak pictures evaluated by consumers or chefs. Consumers identified the DOD of cooked steaks as the DOD that corresponds to published end-point temperatures 27 to 35% of the time. Chefs typically identified the DOD as 1 DOD higher than which the steaks were cooked for steaks cooked to medium or less and 1 DOD lower for steaks cooked to well-done and higher. This indicates differences exist in the perceptions of DOD between culinary professionals and consumers, and may contribute to decreased consumer satisfaction when ordering steaks in a restaurant

Visual Degree of Doneness Impacts Beef Palatability for Consumers with Different Degree of Doneness Preferences

The objective of this study was to determine the impact on beef palatability perceptions when consumers with varying degree of doneness (DOD) preferences are served steaks cooked to multiple DOD. Paired Low Choice strip loin steaks were randomly assigned to a DOD of either rare (60°C), medium-rare (63°C), medium (71°C), medium-well (74°C), or well-done (77°C). Consumer panelists were prescreened for DOD preference (rare, medium, or well-done) prior to sensory panels and were assigned to panels based on their DOD preference. In the first round of testing, consumers were served 1 sample from each of the 5 DOD under low-intensity red incandescent light to mask any DOD differences among samples. In round 2 of testing, consumers were fed the paired samples cooked to the same DOD under white incandescent lights. There were no (P > 0.05) consumer DOD preference × steak DOD interactions or consumer DOD preference effects for tenderness, juiciness, and flavor ratings when steaks were evaluated under both lighting types. Within the white-lighting testing, there was a consumer DOD preference × steak DOD interaction (P 0.05) in overall palatability among DOD under white-lighting, whereas consumers who preferred steaks cooked to rare and medium rated steaks lower (P < 0.05) for overall palatability as DOD increased. Regardless of DOD preference, consumer sensory ratings decreased (P < 0.05) when steaks were cooked above the consumer’s preferred DOD; whereas sensory ratings improved (P < 0.05) when steaks were served below the consumers’ preferences. These results indicate that overcooking steaks has the greatest negative impact on beef palatability perception and thus, foodservice should err on the side of undercooking steaks to preserve, and potentially improve, eating satisfaction

Determining the Impact of Probicon L28 and BioPlus 2B on Finishing Pig Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics

These data represent the growth performance of pigs enrolled in a study to determine the impact of two direct fed microbial products on Salmonella and Escherichia coli prevalence pre- and post-harvest. A total of 650 finishing pigs in two groups were randomly assigned to pen via a completely randomized design, and pens were assigned to one of three treatments: 1) a control treatment with pigs fed a standard corn-soybean meal finishing diet (with no added probiotic); 2) the control diets with Probicon L28 (NexGen Innovations, LLC, Lubbock, TX) supplemented through water lines using a water medicator system at a target concentration of 1.0 × 106 CFU/head/day; and 3) the control diet with added BioPlus 2B (5.0 × 108 CFU/lb of feed; ~3.0 × 109 CFU/ head/day; CHR Hansen, Inc, Milwaukee, WI). No evidence of difference (P \u3e 0.10) between treatments was observed for overall ADG, ADFI, or F/G or any of the carcass traits. However, there was a tendency for a treatment effect for loin depth (P = 0.070). Pigs fed the BioPlus 2B treatment had numerically greater loin depth compared to other treatments, but there were no significant pairwise differences between treatments (P \u3e 0.05). The results of this study suggested that probiotics used in this study and supplied through the water or feed had no impact on growth or carcass characteristics of finishing pigs