HEPATITIS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF LIVER CELLS-A REVIEW

Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver, with accompanying damage to liver cells. Hepatitis is classified into chronic and acute hepatitis and the different types are hepatitis A, B, C, D and E. However, their causes, modes of transmission, incubation periods, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatments and preventions were also discussed. Hepatitis causes liver diseases such as liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and jaundice. It is reviewed that when chronic hepatitis C or B goes untreated, it causes scarring to the liver (cirrhosis) and an increased chance of liver cancer and liver failure, ending in death. Hepatitis viruses, especially Hepatitis A Virus (HAV), Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infection are endemic in Nigeria and constitute a public health menace, the prevalence of HBV in some professional group was found to be highest among the female sex workers (FSWs). Global prevalence of chronic HAV and HBV infection is highest in Africa, Asia and Western Pacific; intermediate in Southern and Eastern Europe and Lowest in Western Europe, North America and Australia. Pregnant women, in the 3rd trimester of gestation are found to be more likely to be infected than those in the 1st and 2nd trimester, thus, the virus can be transmitted from the infected mother to the offspring during birth. The group of people who stood the high risk of contracting both HAV and HBV infections were also revealed. It is recommended that hepatitis screening should be incorporated in the routine antenatal check up, and government at all levels should be proactive in innovation and immediate implementation of a general child and adolescent immunization against HBV to prevent further spread of this virus.Key words: Hepatitis, Liver cell, cirrhosis, jaundice, hepatocellular carcinom

PARAZITOFAUNA PET SLATKOVODNIH RIBA U NIGERIJSKOM SLATKOVODNOM EKOSUSTAVU

The parasitic fauna of freshwater fishes of the Warri River, Delta State, Nigeria, with reference to their prevalence, intensity and differences in metazoan parasites between fish sexes, was investigated. A total of 85fish samples comprising of 21 Tilapia zillii (Cichlidae: Perciformes), 23 Synodontisclarias (Mochokidae: Siluriformes), 23 Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (Claroteidae: Siluriformes), 16 Hepsetus odoe (Hepsetidae: Characiformes)and 2 Clarias anguillaris (Clariidae: Siluriformes) collected from the Warri River, Delta State, Nigeria, were subjected to parasitological examination.The overall metazoan parasite prevalence was 32.9%. The metazoan parasites recovered were mainly the acanthocephalans: Neoechinorhynchusprolixum, Pomphorhynchus spp., Acanthocephalus spp. and unidentified acanthocephalan, and nematodes: Camallanus polypteri, Capillariapterophylli, C. cichlasomae, Procamallanus laeviconchus, Philometroides africanus and Railletnema synodontis. Although the acanthocephalans constituted 75.6% and nematodes 22.2% of the parasites recovered, thenematodes had the highest prevalence (23.5%) compared to the acanthocephalans (9.4%). Similarly, variable prevalences were observed for the other metazoan parasite taxa recovered, namely trematoda; Clinostomumcomplanatum (1.2%), Leech; Pisciola geometra (2.4%) and Crustaceans (1.2%). The highest parasite prevalence (39.1%) was observed in S. clarias, while the least (23.8%) was observed in T. zillii. Generally, the prevalenceof parasites was higher in female (35.7%) than in the males (31.6%), although statistically no significant difference was observed in the prevalence by sex (X2 = 0.145, P = 0.807). The relatively high overall parasite prevalence in fishes inhabiting the Warri River may be attributed to the relatively high level of pollution.Ovo istraživanje bavi se proučavanjem parazitofaune slatkovodnih riba iz rijeke Warri u državi Delti u Nigeriji s obzirom nazastupljenost, intenzitet pojave i razlike u višestaničnim parazitima kod različitih spolova. Parazitološkom pregledu podvrgnutoje ukupno 85 jedinki ribe iz rijeke Warri u državi Delti u Nigeriji: 21 Tilapia zillii (Cichlidae: Perciformes), 23 Synodontisclarias (Mochokidae: Siluriformes), 23 Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus(Claroteidae: Siluriformes), 16 Hepsetus odoe (Hepsetidae: Characiformes) i dvije Clarias anguillaris (Clariidae: Siluriformes).Ukupna zastupljenost višestaničnih parazita bila je 32,9%. Otkriveni višestanični paraziti uglavnom su bili akantocefali, Neoechinorhynchus prolixum, Pomphorhynchus spp., Acanthocephalus spp., a isto tako i neidentificirani akantocefali i nematode, Camallanus polypteri, Capillaria pterophylli,C. cichlasomae, Procamallanus laeviconchus, Philometroides africanus i Railletnema synodontis. Među otkrivenim parazitimaakantocefala je bilo 75,6%, a nematoda 22,2%, no usprkos manjem postotku, nematode su imale veću zastupljenost (23,5%) u usporedbi s akantocefalima (9,4%). Isto tako, praćena je i zastupljenost drugog višestaničnog parazita– trematoda (metilja): Clinostomum complanatum (1,2%), zatim pijavica (Leech); Pisciola geometra (2,4%) i račića (Crustaceans)(1,2%). Najveća zastupljenost parazita zabilježena je kod S. Clarias, a najmanja (23,8%) kod T. zillii. Sveukupno gledajući, zastupljenost parazita bila je veća kod ženki (35,7%)nego kod mužjaka (31,6%), iako statistički nema velike razlike u zastupljenosti parazita po spolu ( 2 = 0,145, P = 0,807). Relativno visoka ukupna zastupljenost parazita kod riba možese pripisati relativno visokoj razini onečišćenja

Phytochemical composition and antitrypanosomal activities Of aqueous leaf extracts of Loranthus micranthus Linn. (Loranthaceae) in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei Brucei

Phytochemical composition and antitrypanosomal activities of aqueous leaf extracts of Loranthus micranthus in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei was investigated for 28 days using 72 adult male albino rats weighing between 150 – 250 g. The rats were divided into six groups (A – F), replicated thrice with each replicate having four rats. Group A, B and C were given 400 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg and 1200 mg/kg of the extracts respectively, according to their body weights, while group D, E and F served as the negative, positive and normal control groups, respectively. LD50, phytochemical screening, parasitaemia and body weight were determined using standard methods. It was observed that tannins and flavonoids were highly present, alkaloids, resins, steroids and saponins were moderately present in the plant extract, while terpenes and glycosides were present in trace amounts. LD50 of the crude leaf extract of L. micranthus showed no mortality at dose levels of up to 5,000 mg/kg after 24 hours. The level of parasitaemia in all the tested groups and negative control were significantly high (p<0.05) when compared with the positive and normal control groups throughout the duration of the experiment. Similarly, a significant decrease (p<0.05) was observed in the mean values of body weights of the infected and treated animals throughout the duration of the experiment. The results showed that all the tested rats and negative control groups died from the overwhelming parasitaemia unlike the case of those administered the standard drug. The aqueous leaf extract of L. micranthus may not be used as an antitrypanosomal agent.Keywords: Phytochemical composition, Parasitaemia, Trypanosomiasis, Albino rats, Loranthus micranthus, Non antitrypanosomal agen