15 research outputs found
Recommended from our members
MEASUREMENT OF WASTE LOADING IN SALTSTONE
One of the goals of the Saltstone variability study is to identify the operational and compositional variables that control or influence the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone grout mixtures. One of those properties of importance is the Waste Loading (WL) of the decontaminated salt solution (DSS) in the Saltstone waste form. Waste loading is a measure of the amount of waste that can be incorporated within a waste form. The value of the Saltstone waste loading ultimately determines the number of vaults that will be required to disposition all of the DSS. In this report, the waste loading is defined as the volume in milliliters of DSS per liter of Saltstone waste form. The two most important parameters that determine waste loading for Saltstone are water to cementitious material (w/cm) ratio and the cured grout density. Data are provided that show the dependence of waste loading on the w/cm ratio for a fixed DSS composition using the current premix material (45% Blast Furnace Slag (BFS), 45% Fly Ash (FA) and 10% Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)). The impact of cured grout density on waste loading was also demonstrated. Mixes (at 0.60 w/cm) made with a Modular Caustic side extraction Unit (MCU) simulant and either OPC or BFS have higher cured grout densities than mixes made with premix and increase the WL to 709 mL/L for the OPC mix and 689 mL/L for the BFS mix versus the value of 653 mL/L for MCU in premix at 0.60 w/cm ratio. Bleed liquid reduces the waste loading and lowers the effective w/cm ratio of Saltstone. A method is presented (and will be used in future tasks) for correcting the waste loading and the w/cm ratio of the as-batched mixes in those cases where bleed liquid is present. For example, the Deliquification, Dissolution and Adjustment (DDA) mix at an as-batched 0.60 w/cm ratio, when corrected for % bleed, gives a mix with a 0.55 w/cm ratio and a WL that has been reduced from 662 to 625 mL/L. An example is provided that demonstrated the quantitative impact of WL on the number of cells (each Saltstone vault contains two cells) required to disposition all of the {approx}100 million gallons of DSS available in the tanks. This calculation revealed that the number of cells required over the range of 0.48 to 0.62 w/cm ratio (equivalent to a WL range of 591 to 666 mL/L) varies from 65 to 57 cells (33 to 29 vaults). The intent of this oversimplified example was to show the range of variation in vaults expected due to w/cm ratio rather than to estimate the actual number of vaults required. There is a tradeoff between the waste loading and the processing and performance properties of Saltstone. The performance properties improve in general as the w/cm ratio decreases whereas the waste loading is reduced at lower w/cm ratios resulting in a larger number of Saltstone vaults. The final performance and processing requirements of Saltstone will determine the maximum waste loading achievable
Recommended from our members
MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SALTSTONE
One of the goals of the Saltstone variability study is to identify (and quantify the impact of) the operational and compositional variables that control or influence the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone grout mixtures. The heat capacity of the Saltstone waste form is one of the important properties of Saltstone mixes that was last measured at SRNL in 1997. It is therefore important to develop a core competency for rapid and accurate analysis of the specific heat capacity of the Saltstone mixes in order to quantify the impact of compositional and operational variations on this property as part of the variability study. The heat capacity, coupled with the heat of hydration data obtained from isothermal calorimetry for a given Saltstone mix, can be used to predict the maximum temperature increase in the cells within the vaults of the Saltstone Disposal Facility (SDF). The temperature increase controls the processing rate and the pour schedule. The maximum temperature is also important to the performance properties of the Saltstone. For example, in mass pours of concrete or grout of which Saltstone is an example, the maximum temperature increase and the maximum temperature difference (between the surface and the hottest location) are controlled to ensure durability of the product and prevent or limit the cracking caused by the thermal gradients produced during curing. This report details the development and implementation of a method for the measurement of the heat capacities of Saltstone mixes as well as the heat capacities of the cementitious materials of the premix and the simulated salt solutions used to batch the mixes. The developed method utilizes the TAM Air isothermal calorimeter and takes advantage of the sophisticated heat flow measurement capabilities of the instrument. Standards and reference materials were identified and used to validate the procedure and ensure accuracy of testing. Heat capacities of Saltstone mixes were {approx} 55% higher than the previous measurement of specific heat capacity on a reference Saltstone mix in 1997. Values of mixes prepared using Deliquification, Dissolution and Adjustment (DDA), Modular Caustic Side Solvent Extraction Unit (MCU) and Salt Waste Processing Facility (SWPF) simulants and premix at 0.60 w/cm ratio were {approx} 1.95 J/g/{sup o}C and were equivalent within experimental error. The simple law of mixtures was used to predict the heat capacities of the Saltstone and the results were in excellent agreement with experimental data. This simple law of mixtures can therefore be used to predict the heat capacities of Saltstone mixes in those cases where measurements have not been made. The time dependence of the heat capacity is important as an input to the modeling of temperature increase in Saltstone vaults. The heat capacity of a mix of MCU and premix at 0.60 w/cm ratio was measured immediately after initial mixing and then periodically up to times greater than 100 days. Within experimental error, the heat capacity did not change with time. Therefore, the modeling is not complicated by requiring a time dependent function for specific heat capacity. The water to cementitious material (w/cm) ratio plays a key role in determining the value of the heat capacity. Both experimental and predictive values for SWPF mixes as function of the w/cm ratio were obtained and presented in this report. Predictions of the maximum temperatures of the Saltstone mixes were made using the heat of hydration data from previous isothermal measurements and the newly measured heat capacities for DDA, MCU and SWPF mixes. The maximum temperature increase ranged from 37 to 48 C for these mixes. The presence of aluminate at 0.33 M produced a temperature increase of 68 C which is close to the adiabatic temperature rise of 74 C observed by Steimke and Fowler in 1997 for a mix containing 0.35 M aluminate. Aluminum dissolution of the sludge will increase the aluminate in the DSS which in turn will result in a larger temperature increase in the Saltstone vaults during the curing period. The initial temperature of the Saltstone mixes in the Saltstone Production Facility (SPF) can be predicted using the specific heat capacities of Decontaminated Salt Solutions (DSS), the specific heat capacities of cementitious materials, and the initial temperatures of the DSS and the premix. This initial mix temperature is dominated by the DSS temperature due to its high heat capacity relative to the cementitious materials. Therefore, controlling the initial temperature of the DSS to lower temperatures will lead to lower maximum temperatures in the vault for a given batch of Saltstone
Recommended from our members
PERMEABILITY OF SALTSTONE MEASUREMENT BY BEAM BENDING
One of the goals of the Saltstone variability study is to identify (and, quantify the impact of) the operational and compositional variables that control or influence the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone mixes. A performance property for Saltstone mixes that is important but not routinely measured is the liquid permeability or saturated hydraulic conductivity of the cured Saltstone mix. The value for the saturated hydraulic conductivity is an input into the Performance Assessment for the SRS Z-Area vaults. Therefore, it is important to have a method available that allows for an accurate and reproducible measurement of permeability quickly and inexpensively. One such method that could potentially meet these requirements for the measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity is the technique of beam bending, developed by Professor George Scherer at Princeton University. In order to determine the feasibility of this technique for Saltstone mixes, a summer student, David Feliciano, was hired to work at Princeton under the direction of George Scherer. This report details the results of this study which demonstrated the feasibility and applicability of the beam bending method to measurement of permeability of Saltstone samples. This research effort used samples made at Princeton from a Modular Caustic side solvent extraction Unit based simulant (MCU) and premix at a water to premix ratio of 0.60. The saturated hydraulic conductivities for these mixes were measured by the beam bending technique and the values determined were of the order of 1.4 to 3.4 x 10{sup -9} cm/sec. These values of hydraulic conductivity are consistent with independently measured values of this property on similar MCU based mixes by Dixon and Phifer. These values are also consistent with the hydraulic conductivity of a generic Saltstone mix measured by Langton in 1985. The high water to premix ratio used for Saltstone along with the relatively low degree of hydration for MCU based mixes leads to high total and capillary porosities. These two conditions generally lead to higher permeabilities as has been well documented in the literature for typical cementitious pastes in water. Therefore, it is not unexpected that the hydraulic conductivities of these Saltstone mixes are relatively high
Recommended from our members
CLOSURE OF HLW TANKS FORMULATION FOR A COOLING COIL GROUT
The Tank Closure and Technology Development Groups are developing a strategy for closing the High Level Waste (HLW) tanks at the Savannah River Site (SRS). Two Type IV tanks, 17 and 20 in the F-Area Tank Farm, have been successfully filled with grout. Type IV tanks at SRS do not contain cooling coils; on the other hand, the majority of the tanks (Type I, II, III and IIIA) do contain cooling coils. The current concept for closing tanks equipped with cooling coils is to pump grout into the cooling coils to prevent pathways for infiltrating water after tank closure. This task addresses the use of grout to fill intact cooling coils present in most of the remaining HLW tanks on Site. The overall task was divided into two phases. Phase 1 focused on the development of a grout formulation (mix design) suitable for filling the HLW tank cooling coils. Phase 2 will be a large-scale demonstration of the filling of simulated cooling coils under field conditions using the cooling coil grout mix design recommended from Phase 1. This report summarizes the results of Phase 1, the development of the cooling coil grout formulation. A grout formulation is recommended for the full scale testing at Clemson Environmental Technology Laboratory (CETL) that is composed by mass of 90% Masterflow (MF) 816 (a commercially available cable grout) and 10% blast furnace slag, with a water to cementitious material (MF 816 + slag) ratio of 0.33. This formulation produces a grout that meets the fresh and cured grout requirements detailed in the Task Technical Plan (2). The grout showed excellent workability under continuous mixing with minimal change in rheology. An alternative formulation using 90% MF 1341 and 10% blast furnace slag with a water to cementitious material ratio of 0.29 is also acceptable and generates less heat per gram than the MF 816 plus slag mix. However this MF 1341 mix has a higher plastic viscosity than the MF 816 mix due to the presence of sand in the MF 1341 cable grout and a lower water to solids ratio. Nevertheless, the higher viscosity grout may still meet the requirements for the cooling coil grout under certain pumping conditions or alternatively, the mix may be made more fluid by a short period of high shear mixing during production. The mixes have not been optimized for large scale production. It may be possible, for example, to adjust the water to cementitious materials ratio to provide improved performance of these mixes based on the results and conclusions of the large scale testing at CETL. Recommendations from this task include incorporation of a backup mixing/pumping system that is either integrated into the system or is available for immediate use in case of a pump or mixer failure of the primary system. A second recommendation is to conduct a laboratory scale investigation to determine the impact of operational variation on the properties of the grout. This effort would be initiated after feedback is received from the large scale testing at CETL. The purpose of this proposed variability testing is to better understand the limits of the operational variations (such as temperature and mixing time), and to identify possible approaches for remediation to ensure that the grout produced will flow effectively in the coils while still meeting the performance requirements
Recommended from our members
HEAT OF HYDRATION OF SALTSTONE MIXES-MEASUREMENT BY ISOTHERMAL CALORIMETRY
This report provides initial results on the measurement of heat of hydration of Saltstone mixes using isothermal calorimetry. The results were obtained using a recently purchased TAM Air Model 3116 Isothermal Conduction Calorimeter. Heat of hydration is an important property of Saltstone mixes. Greater amounts of heat will increase the temperature of the curing mix in the vaults and limit the processing rate. The heat of hydration also reflects the extent of the hydraulic reactions that turn the fluid mixture into a ''stone like'' solid and consequently impacts performance properties such as permeability. Determining which factors control these reactions, as monitored by the heat of hydration, is an important goal of the variability study. Experiments with mixes of portland cement in water demonstrated that the heats measured by this technique over a seven day period match very well with the literature values of (1) seven day heats of hydration using the standard test method for heat of hydration of hydraulic cement, ASTM C 186-05 and (2) heats of hydration measured using isothermal calorimetry. The heats of hydration of portland cement or blast furnace slag in a Modular Caustic Side Solvent Extraction Unit (MCU) simulant revealed that if the cure temperature is maintained at 25 C, the amount of heat released over a seven day period is roughly 62% less than the heat released by portland cement in water. Furthermore, both the blast furnace slag and the portland cement were found to be equivalent in heat production over the seven day period in MCU. This equivalency is due to the activation of the slag by the greater than 1 Molar free hydroxide ion concentration in the simulant. Results using premix (a blend of 10% cement, 45% blast furnace slag, and 45% fly ash) in MCU, Deliquification, Dissolution and Adjustment (DDA) and Salt Waste Processing Facility (SWPF) simulants reveal that the fly ash had not significantly reacted (undergone hydration reactions) after seven days (most likely less than 5%). There were clear differences in the amount of heat released and the peak times of heat release for the three different simulants. It turns out that SWPF simulant mixes give off greater heat than does MCU and DDA simulant mixes. The temperature dependence of the heat of hydration was measured by carrying out these measurements at 25, 40 and 55 C. In general, the peak times shifted to shorter times as the isothermal temperature increased and the amount of heat released was independent of temperature for DDA and MCU but slightly higher at higher temperatures for SWPF. The goal of this study is to apply this technique to the measurement of the heat of hydration of mixes that will be made as part of the variability study. It is important to understand which variables will impact (and to what extent) the amount of heat generated and the peak times for the heat release. Those variables that can be controlled can then be tuned to adjust the heat of hydration as long as the other properties are still acceptable. The first application of heat of hydration measurements to the variability study was completed and the results presented in this report. These measurements were made using Phase VI mixes (SWPF simulants) following a statistical design that included variation in the compositional and operational variables. Variation in both the amount of heat released and the peak times for the heat release were observed. The measured ranges were 23 Joules per gram of premix for the heat release and 23 hours for the peak time of heat release at 25 C. Linear models with high R{sup 2} values and no statistical evidence for lack of fit were developed that relate the amount of heat release and the peak time for heat release for the Phase VI mixes to certain variables. The amount of heat released was a function of the aluminate and portland cement concentrations as well as the temperature of mixing. The peak time for heat release was a function of aluminate, portland cement and total nitrate plus nitrite concentrations. A comparison was made of the measured values of heat release by isothermal calorimetry to a previous study of the measurement of the heat of hydration using adiabatic calorimetry by Steimke and Fowler. After 80 hours of reaction time, the two techniques provided heat release results that were roughly in the same range. However, additional experiments at higher isothermal temperatures will be required to see how well the two measurements agree for longer times. This is due to the higher temperatures that are experienced in adiabatic calorimetry ({approx}105 C)
Recommended from our members
IMPACT OF INCREASED ALUMINATE CONCENTRATIONS ON PROPERTIES OF SALTSTONE MIXES
One of the goals of the Saltstone variability study is to identify the operational and compositional variables that control or influence the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone mixes. The protocols developed in this variability study are ideally suited as a tool to assess the impact of proposed changes to the processing flow sheet for Liquid Waste Operations (LWO). One such proposal that is currently under consideration is to introduce a leaching step in the treatment of the High Level Waste (HLW) sludge to remove aluminum prior to vitrification at the Defense Waste Processing Facility (DWPF). This leachate would significantly increase the soluble aluminate concentrations as well as the free hydroxide ion concentration in the salt feed that will be processed at the Saltstone Processing Facility (SPF). Consequently, an initial study of the impact of increased aluminate concentration on the Saltstone grout properties was performed. The projected compositions and ranges of the aluminate rich salt stream (which includes the blending strategy) are not yet available and consequently, in this initial report, two separate salt stream compositions were investigated. The first stream starts with the previously projected baseline composition of the salt solution that will be fed to SPF from the Salt Waste Processing Facility (SWPF). The second stream is the solution that results from washing of the current Tank 51 sludge and subsequent transfer of the salt solution to Tank 11. The SWPF simulant has higher nitrate and lower free hydroxide than the Tank 11 simulant. In both of these cases, the aluminate was varied up to a maximum of 0.40 to 0.45M aluminate in order to evaluate the impact of increasing aluminate ion concentration on the grout properties. In general, the fresh grout properties of mixes made with SWPF and Tank 11 simulants were relatively insensitive to an increase in aluminate concentration in the salt solutions. However, the overall trends observed as the aluminate concentration increased in the salt solution were decreased Bingham Plastic yield stress and plastic viscosity, greater flowability of the grout, and reduced gel times and bleed volume for SWPF based mixes. On the other hand, the set times increased significantly with increasing aluminate concentration in the salt solutions. For the SWPF mixes, the set time increased from 1 to 4 days and for the Tank 11 mixes, the set time increased from 1 to 2 days. Heat of hydration measurements were consistent with the increased set times with extended induction periods (2 to 4 days) as aluminate concentration increased in the salt solution. This extended induction period of heat evolution observed with increasing aluminate concentrations must be addressed for Saltstone operations to avoid exceeding temperature limits. It is anticipated that the induction period will be temperature dependent and should be measured for future projections and included in the thermal modeling. The overall heat generation was greater in the mixes containing higher concentrations of aluminate. In fact, for the total heat release values calculated using curve fitting for longer times, the amount of heat was increased by 33% for SWPF based solutions and by 46% for Tank 11 based solutions. The larger amount of heat from mixes containing higher aluminate concentration must be accounted for in the modeling effort which determines the pour schedule for Saltstone. The increased induction periods were shown to be associated with hydration reactions of the blast furnace slag. The rate of heat generation with high aluminate solutions and Portland cement were only accelerated whereas high aluminate mixes containing blast furnace slag only showed the characteristic increase in induction time that was observed with mixes prepared using the premix blend of cementitious materials. It was shown that fly ash does not react significantly during the first seven days of curing but then undergoes an accelerated burst for 15 days before beginning to level off. The total amount of heat generated from a fly ash only mix with SWPF solution containing aluminate at 0.33 M is approximately 100 J/g vs. 87 J/g for SWPF with 0.11 M aluminate. Finally, the heat of hydration measurements revealed that the ternary system of cementitious materials (premix) leads to interactions between the hydration reactions of these three components that actually reduce the overall heat generation compared to the summation of the heats of hydration for mixes made only from portland cement, blast furnace slag or fly ash
Recommended from our members
IMPACT OF ALUMINATE IONS ON THE PROPERTIES OF SALTSTONE GROUT MIXES
It is important to identify and control the operational and compositional variables that impact the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone grout mixes. The grout that is produced at the Saltstone Production Facility (SPF) is referred to as Saltstone and is a waste form that immobilizes low concentrations of radionuclides as well as certain toxic metals. The Saltstone will be disposed of in vaults at Savannah River Site (SRS). An effort referred to as the Saltstone Variability Study has been initiated to achieve this goal. The protocols developed in this variability study are also ideally suited as a tool to assess the impact of proposed changes to the processing flow sheet for Liquid Waste Operations at SRS. One such proposal that is currently under consideration is to introduce a leaching step in the treatment of the High Level Waste (HLW) sludge to remove aluminum prior to vitrification at the Defense Waste Processing Facility (DWPF). This leachate would significantly increase the soluble aluminate concentration in the salt feed that will be processed at the SPF. Consequently, an initial study of the impact of increased aluminate concentration on the Saltstone grout properties was performed. Prior work by Lukens (1) showed that aluminate in the salt solutions increases the amount of heat generation
Recommended from our members
SALTSTONE VARIABILITY STUDY - MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
One of the goals of the Saltstone Variability Study is to identify the operational and compositional variables that control or influence the important processing and performance properties of Saltstone mixes. One of the key performance properties is porosity which is a measure of the volume percent of a cured grout that is occupied by salt solution (for the saturated case). This report presents (1) the results of efforts to develop a method for the measurement of porosity of grout samples and (2) initial results of porosity values for samples that have been previously produced as part of the Saltstone Variability Study. A cost effective measurement method for porosity was developed that provides reproducible results, is relatively fast (30 to 60 minutes per sample) and uses a Mettler Toledo HR83 Moisture Analyzer that is already operational and routinely calibrated at Aiken County Technology Laboratory. The method involves the heating of the sample at 105 C until no further mass loss is observed. This mass loss value, which is due to water evaporation, is then used to calculate the volume percent porosity of the mix. The results of mass loss for mixes at 105 C were equivalent to the results obtained using thermal gravimetric analysis. The method was validated by comparing measurements of mass loss at 105 C for cured portland cement in water mixes to values presented in the literature for this system. A stereopycnometer from Quantachrome Instruments was selected to measure the cured grout bulk densities. Density is a property that is required to calculate the porosities. A stereopycnometer was already operational at Aiken County Technology Laboratory, has been calibrated using a solid stainless steel sphere of known volume, is cost effective and fast ({approx}15 minutes per sample). Cured grout densities are important in their own right because they can be used to project the volume of waste form produced from a given amount of salt feed of known composition. For mixes made from either Modular Caustic Side Solvent Extraction Unit (MCU) or Salt Waste Processing Facility (SWPF) simulants in premix, the porosities averaged near 62 % with an uptake of water through hydration reactions equivalent to a water to cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) of 0.04. For a mix made from a Deliquification, Dissolution and Adjustment (DDA) simulant and premix, the porosity is slightly lower at 57 % with an uptake of water through hydration reactions equivalent to a w/cm ratio of 0.07. Data are presented which demonstrate that porosity is inversely related to the heat of hydration, a measure of the extent of the hydration reactions. Modeling of porosities from three of the statistically designed phases of the Saltstone Variability Study demonstrated that the data could be fit to a linear model with an R2 of 0.74 and no statistical evidence for a lack of fit. The model revealed that w/cm ratio plays a significant role in the total porosity with porosity increasing as the w/cm ratio increases. Other elements of the model include positive correlations with the free hydroxide ion concentration and the total nitrate plus nitrite ion concentration. For a series of mixes in which the composition of the salt solution remained constant (MCU baseline) the porosity increased from {approx}60 to 65 % as the w/cm ratio increased from 0.55 to 0.65
Recommended from our members
OFFGAS GENERATION FROM THE DISPOSITION OF SCRAP PLUTONIUM BY VITRIFICATION SIMULANT TESTS
The Department of Energy Office of Environmental Management is supporting R&D for the conceptual design of the Plutonium Disposition Project at the Savannah River Site in Aiken, SC to reduce the attractiveness of plutonium scrap by fabricating a durable plutonium oxide glass form and immobilizing this form within the high-level waste glass prepared in the Defense Waste Processing Facility. A glass formulation was developed that is capable of incorporating large amounts of actinides as well as accommodating many impurities that may be associated with impure Pu feed streams. The basis for the glass formulation was derived from commercial glasses that had high lanthanide loadings. A development effort led to a Lanthanide BoroSilicate (LaBS) glass that accommodated significant quantities of actinides, tolerated impurities associated with the actinide feed streams and could be processed using established melter technologies. A Cylindrical Induction Melter (CIM) was used for vitrification of the Pu LaBS glass. Induction melting for the immobilization of americium and curium (Am/Cm) in a glass matrix was first demonstrated in 1997. The induction melting system was developed to vitrify a non-radioactive Am/Cm simulant combined with a glass frit. Most of the development of the melter itself was completed as part of that work. This same melter system used for Am/Cm was used for the current work. The CIM system used consisted of a 5 inch (12.7 cm) diameter inductively heated platinum-rhodium (Pt-Rh) containment vessel with a control system and offgas characterization. Scrap plutonium can contain numerous impurities including significant amounts of chlorides, fluorides, sodium, potassium, lead, gallium, chromium, and nickel. Smaller amounts of additional elements can also be present. The amount of chlorides present is unusually high for a melter feed. In commercial applications there is no reason to have chloride at such high concentrations. Because the melter operates at 1400-1475 C, many of the impurities present are extremely volatile. An alternative being considered is to pre-treat the impure PuO{sub 2} by water washing to remove the soluble salts, which would significantly reduce the melter emissions. The disadvantage of the washing alternative is the criticality concerns of using water with plutonium. In this paper, the testing that has been conducted at the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) to demonstrate induction melting of impure plutonium simulants will be described. The work described concentrates on quantification of the gaseous and particulate emissions from the induction melter. The Pt-Rh melter vessel is a cylinder with a conical bottom and a tubular drain as shown in Figure 1. A 5-inch (12.7 cm) diameter CIM was used for all of the emissions tests. A 6-inch (15.24 cm) diameter CIM, which is the size of the full-scale melter, has since been constructed for further testing. The 5-inch CIM is heated by three induction coils: one for the 5 inch cylinder, one for the conical section, and one for the 1/4-inch (6.35 mm) drain tube. The 6-inch CIM is similar except the cylinder heater extends lower and also heats the cone. The induction heating system is manufactured by Ameritherm{trademark}. The heating system is controlled by a PC to maintain a specific heat up profile and then maintain a constant energy input that maintains a constant temperature. The CIM is operated in batch mode where the plutonium simulant and the glass-forming frit are first thoroughly mixed in an attrittor mill, then added to the melter. Hafnium oxide (HfO{sub 2}) is used as a simulant for the radioactive PuO{sub 2}. The melter is heated until the mixture begins to melt at about 1100 C, then completely melts at about 1400-1450 C. This temperature is maintained for about three hours. While the temperature is maintained at {approx} 1400 C, an air bubbler is normally used to promote mixing of the glass-forming frit and the waste simulant
Validation of a new test that assesses functional performance of the upper extremity and neck (FIT-HaNSA) in patients with shoulder pathology
<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>There is a lack of standardized tests that assess functional performance for sustained upper extremity activity. This study describes development of a new test for measuring functional performance of the upper extremity and neck and assesses reliability and concurrent validity in patients with shoulder pathology.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A series of developmental tests were conducted to develop a protocol for assessing upper extremity tasks that required multi-level movement and sustained elevation. Kinematics of movement were investigated to inform subtask structure. Tasks and test composition were refined to fit clinical applicability criteria and pilot tested on 5 patients awaiting surgery for shoulder impingement and age-sex matched controls. Test-retest reliability was assessed on 10 subjects. Then a cohort of patients with mild to moderate (n = 17) shoulder pathology and 19 controls (17 were age-sex matched to patients) were tested to further validate the Functional Impairment Test-Hand, and Neck/Shoulder/Arm (FIT-HaNSA) by comparing it to self-reported function and measured strength. The FIT-HaNSA, DASH and SPADI were tested on a single occasion. Impairments in isometric strength were measured using hand-held dynamometry. Discriminative validity was determined by comparing scores to those of age-sex matched controls (n = 34), using ANOVA. Pearson correlations between outcome measures (n = 41) were examined to establish criterion and convergent validity.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>A test protocol based on three five-minute subtasks, each either comprised of moving objects to waist-height shelves, eye-level shelves, or sustained manipulation of overhead nuts/bolts, was developed. Test scores for the latter 2 subtasks (or total scores) were different between controls as compared to either surgical-list patients with shoulder impingement or a variety of milder shoulder pathologies (p < 0.01). Test 1 correlated the highest with the DASH (r = -0.83), whereas Test 2 correlated highest with the SPADI (r = -0.76).</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Initial data suggest the FIT-HaNSA provides valid assessment of impaired functional performance in patients with shoulder pathology. It discriminates between patients and controls, is related to self-reported function, and yet provides distinct information. Longitudinal testing is warranted.</p