Beachrock occurrence, characteristics, formation mechanisms and impacts

Beachrocks are hard coastal sedimentary formations consisting of various beach sediments, lithified through the precipitation of carbonate cements. The objectives of this contribution are to (a) collate and review information on the reported occurrences, characteristics and formation mechanisms of beachrocks and (b) consider their impacts on the coastal zone. The analysis of the available information has shown that (a) beachrock formation is a global and diachronic phenomenon and (b) the great majority of beachrocks are found in tropical/subtropical and low temperate latitude, microtidal coasts. The cementing agents of beachrocks are composed predominantly of the metastable carbonate phases High Magnesian Calcite (HMC) and Aragonite (Ar), appearing in a diverse crystalline morphology. It has been suggested that cement precipitation in the coastal environment is controlled by: (i) the physicochemical conditions; (ii) the presence of organic compounds and microbes; (iii) the magnitude and distribution of the wave energy along the coast; and (iv) the textural characteristics of the constituent sediments. Various theories have been proposed to explain beachrock formation itself, linking the phenomenon to either physicochemical or biological processes. These theories, however, do not seem to be of universal validity and acceptance, as each is able to explain only some of the reported occurrences. The presence of beachrocks appears to affect beach morphodynamics by: (i) ‘locking’ the beach profile; (ii) modifying the nearshore hydrodynamics; (iii) changing the porous character of the beach and, thus, its response to wave forcing; and (iv) differential bed erosion at the margins of the beachrock outcrops that can alter significantly the long- and, particularly, the cross-shore sediment transport. Therefore, although relict submerged beachrock outcrops may provide some coastal protection by reducing the wave energy impinging onto the coastline, modern beachrocks may promote offshore loss of unconsolidated beach sediments and buried beachrock outcropping. Finally, the presence of beachrocks may have also significant ecological impacts, as the indigenous (mobile substrate) fauna and flora of the beach is replaced by hard substrate benthic assemblages, which are commonly arranged in hydrodynamically-controlled zones

Upper slope sediment waves in the Cilician Basin, northeastern Mediterranean

Large sediment waves have been observed within the upper slope deposits of the Cilician Basin (northeastern Mediterranean), at the interfluve between two submarine canyons present offshore of the Mersin Shelf. There are several generations of sediment waves stacked within the sedimentary sequence, with the most recent bedforms found on the seabed in an area consisting of fine-grained sediments. The surficial sediment wave field, estimated to cover an area of ~55 km2, is found at water depths between 250 and 310 m. The buried sediment wave fields have similar dimensions, but they are located further downslope. Wave dimensions increase with water depth and depth in the sedimentary sequence. The largest bedforms reach 40 m in height and 1.8 km in length. Most waves appear to have been migrating upslope, i.e. towards the north/northeast, and this migration direction is mostly consistent throughout the sedimentary sequence. This consistency indicates similar mechanisms of formation and maintenance over a considerable time interval. The morphology and migration pattern of the observed bedforms suggests that sedimentation in the Cilician Basin during wave formation has been controlled by near-bed flows resembling those generated by the present Asia Minor Current, although these flows may have been stronger in the past than they are at presen

Sediment transport pathways in a dredged ria system, southwest England

The Fowey Ria system, southwest England, comprises the River Fowey catchment, the Fowey estuary, the cliffs and bays adjacent to the ria mouth, and part of the inner continental shelf of the English Channel. Previously, large quantities of sediment were introduced into the upper ria by ore mining activity. Today, in common with other rias, the Fowey receives a low riverine sediment input. Material from maintenance dredging in the lower ria is dumped in a spoil ground outside the ria mouth. The sediments of the system are investigated using an integrated approach to determine sediment distribution and sediment transport pathways. Surface sediments are analysed for grain size and mineralogy. Grain size trend analysis is used to examine sediment dispersal patterns away from the locus of deposition in the spoil ground. Archived data are used to investigate the seabed morphology and to determine long-term (100 year) bathymetric changes.Within the ria, mixing of sediment from several sources occurs. In the upper reaches, riverine and locally-eroded sediment is transported seawards towards the main area of commercial activity. Sand and finer-grained material moves into the ria from offshore. The bed of the inner continental shelf comprises interfluves covered by a thin veneer of sediment, with a natural composition of locally-derived lithic fragments and biogenic material. The area is mainly low/non-depositional in character, except within the partially-infilled palaeovalley and its tributaries.Sediments dumped in the spoil ground disperse in a complex pattern: coarse-grained material is moved by the action of waves and tidal currents towards the southwest and northeast; fine-grained material is transported either to the east or the west, depending upon the prevailing wave and tidal current regime. Because of its geomorphology, the lower ria acts as an efficient sediment trap, retaining (a) riverine material and sediment eroded from the upper reaches; and (b) sediment entering the ria from offshore. Despite being subjected to major anthropogenic disturbance from past mining and present-day dredging activities, the Fowey Ria conforms to the general sediment model for southwest England rias [Castaing, P., Guilcher, A., 1995. Geomorphology and sedimentology of rias. In: Perillo, G.M.E. (Ed.), Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Estuaries – Developments in Sedimentology, No. 53. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp. 69–111]. A conceptual model of sediment transport pathways for the Fowey Ria system is presented as the basis for further investigations

Cretan deep water outflow into the Eastern Mediterranean

A simple hydraulic model is used to estimate the deep water fluxes of Cretan Deep Water (CDW), through the Cretan Arc Straits and into the Eastern Mediterranean Basins. The input to the model consists of the height of the deep water reservoir above sill depth and its density difference from the overlying water masses. Data from four hydrographic cruises, which took place in 1995, 1991 and 1987, are used to estimate the depth of the reservoir above the sill and the density difference. The results show a significant CDW outflow of 0.75×106 m3 s?1 in early 1995. The outflow of CDW through Kassos Strait, in the east, is 0.53×106 m3 s?1, while 0.22×106 m3 s?1 outflows through the Antikithira Strait in the west. The model results agree with fluxes estimated from current meter observations.The CDW outflow has been neither steady nor uniform during the period 1987–95. In the Kassos Strait, the outflow commenced in 1987 and increased rapidly until 1991; since then, it appears to have stabilised. In the Antikithira Strait, in contrast, the outflow has increased steadily since 1987. Such modifications in the CDW outflow are associated with changes in its hydrographic characteristics. The salinity of CDW increased constantly, by approximately 0.1, between 1987 and 1995 while its temperature warmed, between 1987 and 1991, and then cooled