Skeletal Evidence for Leprosy in India by the Second Millenium B.C.

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by _Mycobacterium leprae_ that affects almost 500,000 people worldwide^1^. The timing of first infection, geographic origin, and pattern of transmission of the disease are unknown^1-3^. Comparative genomics research has recently suggested _M. leprae_ evolved in East Africa or South Asia before spreading to Europe and the rest of the World^4-5^. The earliest accepted textual evidence indicates that leprosy existed in India by at least 600 B.C. and was known in Europe by 400 B.C.^6-7^. The earliest skeletal evidence was dated 300-200 B.C. in Egypt^8^ and Thailand^9^. Here, we report the presence of lepromatous leprosy in skeletal remains from Balathal, a Chalcolithic site (2300-1550 B.C.) in India^10-11^. A middle aged adult male skeleton demonstrates manifestations of facies leprosa and rhinomaxillary syndrome, degenerative joint disease, infectious involvement of the tibia (periostitis), and injury to the peripheral skeleton, often the result of skin anaesthesia. Paleopathological analysis indicates that lepromatous leprosy was present in India by 1800 B.C., a result which supports some translations of the Atharva Veda that reference leprosy and its treatment in hymns composed before the first millennium B.C.^12^. The presence of leprosy in Chalcolithic India suggests _M. leprae_ may have been transmitted during the second or third millennium B.C., at a time when there was substantial interaction between South Asia, West Asia, and Northeastern Africa^13^. This evidence should be impetus to look for additional skeletal and molecular evidence of leprosy in human remains from this time period in India and Africa to confirm the origin of the disease

Acanthus montanus: An experimental evaluation of the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and immunological properties of a traditional remedy for furuncles

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p><it>Acanthus montanus </it>(Nees) T. Anderson (Acanthaceae) is a shrub widespread in Africa, the Balkans, Romania, Greece and Eastern Mediterranean. It is used in African traditional medicine for the treatment of urogenital infections, urethral pain, endometritis, urinary disease, cystitis, leucorrhoea, aches and pains. In southeastern Nigeria, the root is popular and acclaimed highly effective in the treatment of furuncles. This study was undertaken to experimentally evaluate the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of the root extract as well as its effect on phagocytosis and specific cell-mediated immune response which may underlie the usefulness of the roots in treatment of furuncles.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The aqueous root extract (obtained by hot water maceration of the root powder) was studied for effects on the growth of clinically isolated strains of <it>Pseudomonas aeruginosa </it>and <it>Staphylococcus aureus</it>. The anti-inflammatory activity was investigated using acute topical edema of the mouse ear induced by xylene, acute paw edema induced by agar in rats, formaldehyde arthritis in rats, vascular permeability induced by acetic acid in mice and heat- and hypotonicity-induced haemolysis of ox red blood cells (RBCs). Also evaluated were the effects on <it>in vivo </it>leukocyte migration induced by agar, phagocytic activity of macrophages on <it>Candida albicans </it>and specific cell-mediated immune responses (delayed type hypersensitivity reaction (DTHR) induced by sheep red blood cell (SRBC)). The acute toxicity and lethality (LD₅₀) in mice and phytochemical constituents of the extract were also determined.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The extract moderately inhibited the growth of the test organisms and significantly (<it>P </it>< 0.05) inhibited (57%) topical acute edema in the mouse ear. It significantly (<it>P </it>< 0.05) suppressed the development of acute edema of the rat paw in a non-dose-related manner and was not effective in inhibiting the global edematous response to formaldehyde arthritis. It also inhibited vascular permeability induced by acetic acid in mice and the haemolysis of ox RBCs induced by heat- and hypotonicity. The extract increased total leukocyte and neutrophil counts and caused a significant (<it>P </it>< 0.05) dose-related increase in the total number of macrophages at the 800 mg/kg dose. On phagocytic activity, the extract evoked a significant (<it>P </it>< 0.05) increase in the number of macrophages with ingested <it>C. albicans </it>at 800 mg/kg dose, and significantly (<it>P </it>< 0.05) inhibited DTHR in a dose-related manner. Phytochemical tests on the extract revealed an abundant presence of alkaloids and carbohydrates while saponins, glycosides, and terpenoids occurred in trace amounts. Acute toxicity test established an oral and intraperitoneal LD₅₀greater than 5,000 mg/kg.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The effectiveness of the root of <it>A. montanus </it>in the treatment of furuncles may largely derive from mobilization of leukocytes to the site of the infection and activation of phagocytic activity as well as suppression of exacerbated immune responses by its constituents. Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities are likely contributory mechanisms. Phytochemical constituents such as alkaloids and carbohydrates may be responsible for these pharmacological activities.</p

The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia

By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization’s decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages

A review on herbal antiasthmatics

In traditional systems of medicine, many plants have been documented to be useful for the treatment of various respiratory disorders including asthma. In the last two decades the use of medicinal plants and natural products has been increased dramatically all over the world. Current synthetic drugs used in pharmacotherapy of asthma are unable to act at all the stages and targets of asthma. However some herbal alternatives employed in asthma are proven to provide symptomatic relief and assist in the inhibition of disease progression also. The herbs have shown interesting results in various target specific biological activities such as bronchodilation, mast cell stabilization, anti-anaphylactic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-allergic, immunomodulatory and inhibition of mediators such as leukotrienes, lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase, platelet activating, phosphodiesterase and cytokine, in the treatment of asthma. This paper is an attempt to classify these pharmacological and clinical findings based on their possible mechanism of action reported. It also signifies the need for development of polyherbal formulations containing various herbs acting at particular sites of the pathophysiological cascade of asthma for prophylaxis as well as for the treatment of asthma

A Unique Bimetallic Antiquity from the Early Historic site of Iswal, Rajasthan, India

Heritage of the antiquity is a way to understand the material culture related to man, it gives knowledge about the technology, behaviour, religious and art are followed by generation through generation. This research is to understand the unique bimetallic antiquity heritage from India, especially the Southeast part of Rajasthan.  The unique bimetallic  antiquity discovered during our excavation at the Early Historic site of Iswal (Tehnsil Girva, Udaipur district, Rajasthan), 20 km north-west of Udaipur city, Rajasthan. Over five seasons of excavation at this site led to the discovery of important evidence on iron smelting, including the remains of six smelting and forging furnaces. This bi-metallic antiquity is rare in the Indian context for this time period and thus raises many questions on aspects of technology and function. The study brings out the technology and scientific analysis of the object and brings out the knowledge of metal technology form Iswal

Can carbon isotope discrimination and ash content predict grain yield and water use efficiency in wheat?

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Not AvailableBacterial blight is a widespread disease in pomegranate that causes great loss to farmers. The causative agent for this disease is Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae. The present study was taken up to standardize protocol for quality total RNA extraction from various tissues of pomegranate, cDNA synthesis and qPCR validation of differentially expressed gene(s) identified from RNA sequencing data of susceptible and moderately resistant pomegranate genotypes upon challenge inoculation using qPCR. In the study, Phenol-Chloroform, Modified CTAB-LiCl and Trizol methods were evaluated for their efficiency to extract quality total RNA from infected and uninfected leaf and fruit tissues of pomegranate genotypes (Bhagwa and IC-1181). The concentration of extracted total RNA were quantified using Qubit Fluorometer and Qiagen QIAxpert and the quality of 18 and 28S bands of ribosomal RNA also assessed on agarose gel electrophoresis. Phenol-Chloroform method gave the highest concentration of total RNA having Qubit Fluorometer and QIAxpert readings ranged from 3.86 to 5.78 ng/μl and 543.5 to 1684.3 ng/μl, respectively. The time consumed and cost incurred on total RNA isolation were also least in Phenol-Chloroform method (50 minutes and Rs. 29.75/sample, respectively) as compared to other methods. From the high quantity total RNA, cDNA were synthesized using cDNA synthesis kit (HiMedia cDNA synthesis kit) and Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase coding gene was validated using qPCR. The qRT-PCR results showed that gene which code for Xyloglucan endo transglycosylase was slightly over expressed in the infected leaf samples of Bhagwa at infection stage 1 and 3 as compared with the control sample whereas the same gene had under expression in infected leaf sample of IC 1181 as compared to control.Not Availabl