Candidate Glutamatergic Neurons in the Visual System of Drosophila

The visual system of Drosophila contains approximately 60,000 neurons that are organized in parallel, retinotopically arranged columns. A large number of these neurons have been characterized in great anatomical detail. However, studies providing direct evidence for synaptic signaling and the neurotransmitter used by individual neurons are relatively sparse. Here we present a first layout of neurons in the Drosophila visual system that likely release glutamate as their major neurotransmitter. We identified 33 different types of neurons of the lamina, medulla, lobula and lobula plate. Based on the previous Golgi-staining analysis, the identified neurons are further classified into 16 major subgroups representing lamina monopolar (L), transmedullary (Tm), transmedullary Y (TmY), Y, medulla intrinsic (Mi, Mt, Pm, Dm, Mi Am), bushy T (T), translobula plate (Tlp), lobula intrinsic (Lcn, Lt, Li), lobula plate tangential (LPTCs) and lobula plate intrinsic (LPi) cell types. In addition, we found 11 cell types that were not described by the previous Golgi analysis. This classification of candidate glutamatergic neurons fosters the future neurogenetic dissection of information processing in circuits of the fly visual system

Heterogeneous Memory T Cells in Antiviral Immunity and Immunopathology

Memory T cells are generated following an initial viral infection, and have the potential for mediating robust protective immunity to viral re-challenge due to their rapid and enhanced functional responses. In recent years, it has become clear that the memory T cell response to most viruses is remarkably diverse in phenotype, function, and tissue distribution, and can undergo dynamic changes during its long-term maintenance in vivo. However, the role of this variegation and compartmentalization of memory T cells in protective immunity to viruses remains unclear. In this review, we discuss the diverse features of memory T cells that can delineate different subsets, the characteristics of memory T cells thus far identified to promote protective immune responses, and how the heterogeneous nature of memory T cells may also promote immunopathology during antiviral responses. We propose that given the profound heterogeneity of memory T cells, regulation of memory T cells during secondary responses could focus the response to participation of specific subsets, and/or inhibit memory T-cell subsets and functions that can lead to immunopathology

What (if Anything) is Different about Teaching and Learning in Politics?

As a subject taught within higher education, Politics is as healthy today as it has ever been. Having emerged as a distinct area of academic enquiry during the course of the twentieth century, it is now a well-established element of higher education. In the UK, for example, there are currently over 60 universities offering undergraduate degrees with nearly 25,000 students enrolled on a full or part- time basis (HESA, 2009). In the United States, the number of students graduating as majors in Political Science, Public Administration, Public Policy and International Relations had risen to over 50,000 per year in 2006 (APSA, 2010). There are Politics departments in universities and colleges in virtually every other country of the world providing opportunities for students to study the discipline. Whichever way you choose to look at this, there is an awful lot of Politics teaching and learning going on