Ottoman Masonry Bridges in Anatolia and the Balkans

Remains of the historical masonry bridges in Anatolia and the Balkans are dated back to the Roman (first half of the I. Millenium AD), to the Seldjukide (early centuries of the II. Millenium AD; basically in Anatolia), and to the Ottoman periods (13th to 19th centuries). Besides serving to transportation, bridges crossing watercourses have to be considered as important hydraulic structures. Built for military as well as economic purposes, more than one hundred Ottoman bridges (roughly two thirds in Anatolia and one third in the Balkans) served for several centuries; some of them being still in operation. They are silent witnesses of the hydraulic knowledge and solid construction technology of their times. In this inventory study, only Ottoman's masonry bridges in Anatolia and Balkans have been presented. Some of the Ottoman's masonry bridges had sunken in the reservoir of modern dams, some of them demolished during the construction of the new highways, and some of them are still in service

Testing Flood Estimation Methods On Ancient Closed Conduits

Beside a large number of ancient tunnels in long-distance water conveyance systems toancient cities in Turkiye, five peculiar closed conduits, through which almost the entire discharge of water courses were flowing, are investigated. These are the Cevlik (Seleucia Pieria) tunnel inHatay province; vaulted structures covering the river bed in Bergama (Pergamon), in Sultanhisar(Nysa), in Acarlar near Ephesus (all four are leading examples of largest closed conduits from Roman times in the world); and the Bezirgan tunnel east of Kalkan, being an interesting example of emissary conduits draining the floods of closed basins. The hydraulic capacities of these conduits are determined; their corresponding flood return periods are estimated by four synthetic flood hydrograph methods. However, it was not possible to deduce any generalized conclusion based on the comparison of these results

Water Works Through Four Millenia in Turkey

Turkey is one of the foremost open-air museums of the world with regard to historical water works from the last 4000 years. Some of them are still in operation after several centuries or even several millennia. There are remains of dams, irrigation canals, and water collection structures dating back to the IInd millenium BC, the Hittite period in Central Anatolia. Several dams, irrigation canals, qanats date back to the first half of the Ist millenium BC, the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia. Long-distance water conveyance systems, pipes, masonry canals, inverted siphons, tunnels, dams date back to the second half of the Ist millenium BC and the Ist millenium AD, the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods in Western and Southern Anatolia. Some dams, canals, watermills date back to the 11th to 14th centuries, the Seljukide period in Central and Eastern Anatolia. Several dams, irrigation canals, long distance water conveyance systems date back to the 14th to early 20th centuries, the Ottoman period in Turkey. Based on this tradition from four millenia, the modern Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923, is continuing to develop her water resources. The South-eastern Anatolia Project, encompassing the Euphrates-Tigris basin in Turkey, is the most interesting example

The trans-boundary Euphrates-Tigris-Basin

The total water potential of the Euphrates-Tigris-Basin is about 90 km(3)/a, with 60 % originating from Turkey, 25 % from Iraq, 10 % from Iran, 5 % from Syria. After equitable, reasonable, optimal ultimate development, the irrigated land will be 2.3 Million ha in Turkey, 0.8 Million ha in Syria, 3.5 Million ha in Iraq; the hydroelectric energy to be generated will be 60 TWh/a in Turkey, 5 TWh/a in Syria, more than 10 TWh/a in Iraq; water will be supplied to 100 Million persons and their industries; floods will be mitigated

Water Works of Ancient Civilizations

Turkey is renowned for her outstanding remnants of ancient water works and is thus one of the foremost open-air museums of the world with regard to hydraulic structures in the world. Numerous ancient water works from a four-millenia-long period are still in operation after several centuries or even several millennia. These historical works are rich in kind to encompass dams, irrigation canals, masonry conduits, aqueduct-bridges, tunnels, water collection works, water conveyance systems, pipes, inverted siphons and water mills. Geographically, they extend all over the country, indicating the various civilizations who realized them. They date back to the second millenium BC, the Hittite civilization in Central Anatolia; to the first half of the first millenium BC, the Urartu civilization in Eastern Anatolia; to the second half of the first millenium BC and the first millenium AD, the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine civilizations in Western and Southern Anatolia; to the eleventh up to the fourteenth centuries, the Seljukide civilization in Central and Eastern Anatolia; to the fourteenth up to the early twentieth centuries, the Ottoman civilization in Turkey. Some of these ancient water works were given as interesting examples in relevant books; several of them were dealt with more detail in other specific publications, journals and proceedings

Hydraulic capacity of ancient water conveyance systems to Ephesus

Ephesus was supplied by several long-distance water conveyance systems in ancient times. The 8 km long Sirince water conveyance system consists of baked clay pipes, and had a hydraulic capacity of around 10 l/s. The 7 km long Derbentdere water conveyance system consists also of baked clay pipes; and its hydraulic capacity was around 20 l/s. The 36 km long Degirmendere water conveyance system is a masonry conduit; its hydraulic capacity was around 200 l/s. The 42 km long Kayapinar water conveyance was also a masonry conduit; its hydraulic capacity was around 100 l/s. The Sirince system was extended over to the Ayasuluk hill and Saint John basilica in the 6th century AD by the 650 m long Selcuk aqueduct, serving as the venter of an inverted siphon

Development of Hydropower in Turkey

The hydroelectric energy production of Turkey was 1 TWh/a in 1960; the production capacity increased to 52 TWh/a in 2011; the economically feasible hydroelectric potential of the country is around 150 TWh/a, and Turkey anticipates to develop the bulk of this potential until 2023. The harnessing of water power in Turkey is primarily based on hydroelectric plants associated with large dams and on diversion plants. Embankment dams dominate as dam type, but interesting concrete dams do also exist. The Ataturk water power plant is with 2 400 MW capacity the largest hydroelectric scheme

Long-distance Water Conveyances of the Ottoman Chief-Architect Sinan

The Chief-Architect Sinan dominated the construction activities of 16th century Ottoman Empire. He built roughly 500 structures (buildings, bridges, aqueducts etc.). The major long-distance water conveyance systems constructed by him are the Taslimusellim system to Edirne, currently partly in operation; the Suleymaniye system to Istanbul, operating until 19205; the Kirkcesme system to Istanbul, with magnificent aqueducts, in operation for the major part. These water conveyances, each of about 50 km length, are among the most important examples in the world with regard to the history of hydraulics engineering, constructed after the Roman Empire until the twentieth century

Transboundary River Basins

Transboundary water courses provide roughly 70 km(3)/year or 40% of the gross surface water potential originating in Turkey. The Euphrates-Tigris Basin represents about four fifths of this figure; the rest is contributed by the basins Orontes, Kura-Araks, Chorokhi, Maritza, and a few other quite small basins. Turkey is the upstream riparian in the Euphrates-Tigris, Kura-Araks, Chorokhi, and the small basins, and a downstream riparian in the Orontes and Maritza basins. The total water potential of the Euphrates-Tigris Basin exceeds 90 km(3)/y, where Turkey provides, in rough figures, 60%, Iraq 25%, Iran 10% (excluding Kharkeh), and Syria 5% of it. In Turkey, the average water potential of Euphrates is around 32 km(3)/y, and that in Tigris around 24 km(3)/y, including tributaries flowing directly to downstream countries. Ultimately, as a long-term average, half of the Euphrates-Tigris water potential originating from Turkey, about 40% in Euphrates and 65% in Tigris, will continue to flow towards the downstream countries. However, the amount of water in any allocation agreement should be set according to different levels of probabilities of discharges because of the significant stochastic variation of discharges, even after regulation by the huge reservoirs in Turkey. The water potential of the transboundary Euphrates-Tigris Basin is quoted with large differences according to various sources; hence, the determination of the accurate water potential is an essential prerequisite for any allocation among riparian states and eventual diversions to other middle-eastern countries. The water potential of the Euphrates Subbasin appears to be insufficient in Iraq so that the excess water of the Tigris Subbasin should be transferred to Euphrates to satisfy the irrigation needs along the Euphrates banks in Iraq

ANCIENT WATER WORKS IN ANATOLIA

Since the Anatolian peninsula has been at the crossroads of many civilizations, which have left many ancient ruins during the last 4000 years, Turkey is a rich country in term of cultural heritage. Archeological remains, dating from the Hittite period in Central Anatolia, from the Urartu period in Eastern Anatolia, from the Hellenistic-Roman-Byzantine periods in Western and Southern Anatolia, from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods in different parts of Anatolia, make Turkey one of the leading open air museums of the world. One remarkable part of ancient remains are waterworks, such as pipes, canals, tunnels, inverted siphons, aqueducts, reservoirs, cisterns and dams