Modeling cohesion change in group psychotherapy: the influence of group leader behaviors and client characteristics

Cohesion, the sense of belonging individuals feel toward groups they are a part of, is a well-documented predictor of group psychotherapy outcomes. Meta-analyses reveal a reliable association between cohesion and reductions in psychological distress (r = .25; Burlingame, McClendon, & Alonso, 2011a) as well as between cohesion and task performance (r =.17; Gully, Devine, & Whitney, 2012). Despite this, few studies have attempted to carefully examine predictors of cohesion during the life of a psychotherapy group. Given contradictory findings on the trajectory of cohesion across time (e.g. Kivlighan & Lilly, 1997; Taube-Schiff et al., 2007; Tschuschke & Dies, 1994), as well recent evidence that differences between therapists predict the growth of cohesion (e.g. Bakali, Wilberg, Hagtvet, & Lorentzen, 2010), the present investigation sought to model changes in cohesion by analyzing early leader interventions while accounting for client- and group-level characteristics. For the present investigation, 128 volunteer clients and 14 group therapists participated in 23 separate time-limited psychotherapy groups. Client characteristics (attachment style, self-esteem, and psychological distress), therapist characteristics (counseling self-efficacy), first-session therapist behaviors (structuring, verbal interaction, and emotional facilitation), and group characteristics (number of members, member attendance) were used to predict changes in cohesion across time. For the methodology, a Latent Growth Curve (LGC) Analysis under a Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) framework was used; with client ratings serving as indicators of the outcome variable (cohesion), level 1 representing the effects of time, level 2 representing client characteristics, and level 3 representing group characteristics (including leader behaviors and self-efficacy). Results indicated that a piecewise linear-quadratic model best fit the data, with group membership explaining between 3-20% of the variability in cohesion change. Significant individual level predictors included gender, race, and anxious and avoidant attachment. Significant group-level predictors included structuring behaviors, which were moderated by the presence of behaviors thought to facilitate an emotional climate. Limitations and possible areas of future research are discussed and implications for the theory and practice of short-term group psychotherapy are provided

MOVEMENT VARIABILITY: A COMPARISON BETWEEN NOVICE, EXPERIENCED AND ELITE PERFORMERS

The purpose of this study was to investigate movement and its associated outcome variability for three levels of Olympic weightlifters performing the clean. Elite (n=2) experienced (n=5) and novice (n=5) weightlifters performed 12 lifts of the clean at 80% 1RM with 120s rest between each lift. Variability of relative phase, relative hip and knee angles and ground reaction force was calculated for each subject for the 12 trials. No significant differences were reported between groups for coordination, kinematic or outcome variability however, some differences (Fx) were reported for kinetic variability. For the majority of measures no significant differences were reported between groups for performance or outcome variability. In conclusion the traditional viewpoint of invariant movement patterns for elite performers was dismissed

A METHOD TO QUANITIFY MOVEMENT VARIABILITY OF HIGHLY SKILLED GOLFERS PERFORMING DRIVER SWINGS

Variability has been described as inherent in the golf swing (Bradshaw et al., 2009), yet its impact on outcome is not understood. It is necessary to quantify the levels of movement variability before this relationship can be examined effectively. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a method to quantify movement variability of golfers performing driver swings. 16 highly skilled golfers each performed 10 swings wearing retro reflective markers which were tracked by a 3D motion analysis system operating at 400Hz. Movement variability was calculated for each marker using scalene ellipsoid volume methods; a score representative of the 3D variability over 10 trials was then calculated. The variability levels calculated using this method showed increasing variability from the closed end of the chain (malleoli) to the open end of the chain (wrists)

THE CREATION AND VALIDATION OF A LARGE-SCALE COMPUTER MODEL OF THE GOLF SWING

The aim of this study was to create and validate a full-body musculoskeletal model of a golfer performing a swing with their driver club. An elite female participant performed ten shots with her driver while wearing retro-reflective markers. An optical 3-D 6-camera system captured the kinematics of the markers at 400 Hz on the participant for each trial. A launch monitor device recorded the ball and club head conditions at impact. The kinematic data from one representative trial was selected to drive inverse and forward dynamics simulations of the created model. The validation results showed a very high level of agreement between experimental and simulated trajectories for selected markers (mean r = 0.966

THE EFFECT OF THE APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF MOVEMENT VARIABILITY ON MOVEMENT OUTCOME

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the application of a previously validated golfer computer model on different levels of movement variability relative to a shot outcome measure: club head velocity. Movement variability was applied to the computer model on six measures sequentially throughout the body of the computer model. Four different levels of variability, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% variability, were applied to x, y and z positional data of the aforementioned measures. Simulations were then performed with ADAMS/LifeMOD software for each level of movement variability applied to the measures in question. Club head velocity was measured during the simulation. The results suggest that movement variability application at these landmarks does not have an effect on outcome. These results potentially have implications for the coaching of the participant

The science and management of sex verification in sport

The verification of gender eligibility in sporting competition poses a biological and management challenge for sports science and medicine, as well as for sporting authorities. It has been established that in most sporting events, the strength and power advantage possessed by males as a result of the virilising action of hormones such as testosterone produce significant advantages in performance. For this reason, males and females compete largely in separate gender categories. Controversies arise as a result of intersex conditions, where the classification of individuals into male or female is complex. The present review provides the historical context to the debate, identifying the origins of gender verification as a means to deter cheating. It describes how various testing methods have been attempted, including physical examinations of genitalia, molecular techniques including genetic screening, and complex multidisciplinary approaches including endocrinological, genetic and gynaecological examination. To date, none appear to have provided a satisfactory resolution to the problem, and appear instead to have unfairly discriminated against individuals as a result of inappropriate application of testing results. Sporting authorities have formulated position stands for the management of such cases, but there is not absolute agreement between them and little evidence to support whether intersex individuals should or should not be allowed to compete in female categories

BAREFOOT RUNNING TRAINING: IMPLlCATtONS FOR JOINT STIFFNESS AND MUSCULAR CO-ACTWAlION

To determine the influence of barefoot training on neuromuscular w-activation of lower limb muscles on variables associated with injury risk during running. Trained shod runners (n=23) participated in a barefoot running program. Joint stiffness, agonist: antagonist co-activation and the co-activation index were calculated. A progressive barefoot training program induces longer co-activation of the shank complex and lower ankle stiffness in the barefoot condition. Footwear is implicated in changing injury risk factors whether soft tissue or bony related injuries. This paper suggests barefoot training as an avenue for rehabilitating ankle injuries as it promotes an even distribution of joint stillness and lower ankle stiffness when compared to shod running