Strengthening field epidemiology in Africa: The Zimbabwe Field Epidemiology Training Program

The Zimbabwe Masters in Public Health Program is a 2-year competency based training that consists of classroom teaching (30%) and on the job field training (70%). The MPH program was created in 1993 with the aim of assisting the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare create a permanent capacity to recruit, train, and employ public health practitioners to sustain the public health infrastructure. The MPH program is operated from two sites: the DCM at the College of Health Sciences, of University of Zimbabwe (UZ) and the Health Studies Office (HSO) in MOHCW. The HSO in the MOHCW oversees the operation of field training in collaboration with approved Field Supervisors at the training sites. MOHCW provides field training sites through its eight provincial medical directorates. In addition the health directorates of the major cities in the country are designated field training sites. Since 1993, the program has had 18 Cohorts trained of which three are part-time. The part-time program was initiated in 2008 with an intake of 10 trainees. Since 2003, the full time program has experienced an increase in intake with the highest intake recorded being 16 trainees in 2003. The average intake from 2003 - 2011 has been 12 trainees. A total of 169 trainees have been enrolled in the last 19 years. Of the 143 trainees enrolled by 2009, 136 (95%) have graduated. The part-time program has had one cohort graduating with 5 out 10 successfully completing the course. Since the launch of the program, the majority of the graduates have filled most of the key public health positions and even so the positions in most of the nongovernmental organisations

Factors associated with severe occupational injuries at mining company in Zimbabwe, 2010: a cross-sectional study

Introduction: Injury rate among mining workers in Zimbabwe was 789/1000 workers in 2008. The proportion of severe occupational injuries increased from 18% in 2008 to 37% in 2009. We investigated factors associated with severe injuries at the mine. Methods: An unmatched 1:1 case-control study was carried out at the mine, a case was any worker who suffered severe occupational injury at the mine and was treated at the mine or district hospital from January 2008 to April 2010, a control was any worker who did not suffer occupational injury during same period. We randomly selected 156 cases and 156 controls and used interviewer administered questionnaires to collect data from participants. Results: Majority of cases, 155(99.4%) and of controls 142(91%) were male, 127(81.4%) of cases and 48(30.8%) of controls worked underground. Majority (73.1%) of severe occupational injuries occurred during night shift. Underground temperatures reached 500C. Factors independently associated with getting severe occupational injuries included working underground (AOR=10.55; CI 5.97-18.65), having targets per shift (AOR=12.60; CI 3.46-45.84), inadequate PPE (AOR= 3.65 CI 1.34-9.89) and working more than 8 hours per shift (AOR=8.65 CI 2.99-25.02). Conclusion: Having targets exerts pressure to perform on workers. Prolonged working periods decrease workers' attention and concentration resulting in increased risk to severe injuries as workers become exhausted, lose focus and alertness. Underground work environment had environmental hazards so managers to install adequate ventilation and provide adequate PPE. Management agreed to standardize shifts to eight hours and workers in some departments have been supplied with adequate PPE.Pan African Medical Journal 2013; 14:

Factors associated with uptake of voluntary medical male circumcision, Mazowe District, Zimbabwe, 2014

Introduction: voluntary Medical Male Circumcision (VMMC) is the surgical removal of the foreskin by a trained health worker. VMMC was introduced in Zimbabwe in 2009. It is of concern that the programme performance has been below expectations nationally and in Mazowe district. Zimbabwe is unlikely to meet its 2015 target of circumcising 1 200 000 men aged between 15 and 29 years and unlikely to enjoy maximum benefits of VMMC which include prevention of HIV, sexually transmitted infections and cervical cancer. We therefore broadly aimed at identifying factors influencing the level of VMMC uptake in Mazowe district. Methods: an analytic cross-sectional study was carried out in Mazowe district. A multi-stage probability sampling strategy was used to select 300 men aged between 18 and 49 years. Pretested interviewer administered questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data. Quantitative data was analysed using Epi info where odds ratios and p-values were calculated. Qualitative data was analysed thematically. Results: being of Shona origin (AOR= 7.69 (95%CI 1.78-33.20)), fear of pain (AOR= 7.09 (95%CI 2.58-19.47)) and fear of poor wound healing (AOR= 2.68 (95%CI 1.01-7.08)) were independently associated with being uncircumcised while having a circumcised friend and encouragement by a friend or relative were independently associated with being circumcised. Conclusion: fear of pain, fear of poor wound healing and encouragement by a friend or relative were associated with circumcision status. Widening use of surgical devices and third part referrals may assist in scaling up the programme

The African Field Epidemiology Network-Networking for effective field epidemiology capacity building and service delivery

Networks are a catalyst for promoting common goals and objectives of their membership. Public Health networks in Africa are crucial, because of the severe resource limitations that nations face in dealing with priority public health problems. For a long time, networks have existed on the continent and globally, but many of these are disease-specific with a narrow scope. The African Field Epidemiology Network (AFENET) is a public health network established in 2005 as a non-profit networking alliance of Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programs (FELTPs) and Field Epidemiology Training Programs (FETPs) in Africa. AFENET is dedicated to helping ministries of health in Africa build strong, effective and sustainable programs and capacity to improve public health systems by partnering with global public health experts. The Network's goal is to strengthen field epidemiology and public health laboratory capacity to contribute effectively to addressing epidemics and other major public health problems in Africa. AFENET currently networks 12 FELTPs and FETPs in sub-Saharan Africa with operations in 20 countries. AFENET has a unique tripartite working relationship with government technocrats from human health and animal sectors, academicians from partner universities, and development partners, presenting the Network with a distinct vantage point. Through the Network, African nations are making strides in strengthening their health systems. Members are able to: leverage resources to support field epidemiology and public health laboratory training and service delivery notably in the area of outbreak investigation and response as well as disease surveillance; by-pass government bureaucracies that often hinder and frustrate development partners; and consolidate efforts of different partners channelled through the FELTPs by networking graduates through alumni associations and calling on them to offer technical support in various public health capacities as the need arises. AFENET presents a bridging platform between governments and the private sector, allowing for continuity of health interventions at the national and regional level while offering free exit and entry for existing and new partners respectively. AFENET has established itself as a versatile networking model that is highly responsive to members’ needs. Based on the successes recorded in AFENET's first 5 years, we envision that the Network's membership will continue to expand as new training programs are established. The lessons learned will be useful in initiating new programs and building sustainability frameworks for FETPs and FELTPs in Africa. AFENET will continue to play a role in coordinating, advocacy, and building capacity for epidemic disease preparedness and response

Evaluation of sexual and gender-based violence program in Harare City, Zimbabwe, 2016: a descriptive cross-sectional study

Introduction: in Zimbabwe, there is a gap between sexual violence (SV) survivors' health care needs versus the existing facilities. Harare city started Sexual Gender Based Violence (SGBV) project in 2011, with the aim to reduce SV morbidity.Only 592 (42%) of 1425 SV survivors reported for medical services within 72 hours in 2015. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is effective within 72hours of post exposure. We evaluated the program performance in Harare city. Methods: we conducted a process-outcome evaluation using a logic model. We purposively recruited all eight SGBV sites and key informants. We randomly selected 27nurses into the study. Interviewer-administered questionnaires and checklists were used to collect data. To generate frequencies, means and proportions we used Epi info 7. Results: the program adequately received inputs except for counselling rooms (1/8). About 4285 survivors were recorded from 2013-2016. Of these, 97% were counselled, 93% received HIV test, 41% reported to the clinic within 72hrs of post-rape, and 12% received PEP. About 16% of the total survivors were followed up. The programme failed to meet its targets on decentralised sites (8/10), awareness campaigns(16/32) and sensitisation activities(16/32). About 500(12.5%) IEC materials were distributed. All 96-targeted supervisory visits were achieved. Two ofeight district supervisors were trained. Majority of health workers(25/35) citedlack of awareness as major reasons for underperformance. Conclusion: availability of resources did not translate to program performance. Most survivors were not reporting to the clinic timeously due to the low level of awareness of the programme to the community, hence were not protected from getting HIV through PEP. The programme was not well disseminated, as most supervisors were not trained. Following this evaluation, we distributed150 IEC materials to each of the eight facilities. A follow-up study on outcomes of clients referred for services and training of district officers were recommended

Rubella outbreak investigation, Gokwe North District, Midlands province, Zimbabwe, 2014 - a case control study

Introduction: Rubella is a contagious disease, caused by rubella virus and transmitted via the  respiratory route. Rubella in pregnancy may cause Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS), characterized by multiple defects to the brain, heart, eyes and ears. Gokwe North experienced an increase in rubella cases from 6 cases (24 June 2014) to 374 cases (12 August 2014). The study was conducted to determine risk factors associated with contracting rubella. Methods: A 1:1 unmatched case control study was conducted. A case was a child <15 years, resided in Gokwe North, with maculopapular rash and tested positive for rubella specific IgM or was linked  epidemiologically to a laboratory confirmed case. Blood was collected for laboratory diagnosis. An  interviewer administered questionnaire was used. Epi InfoTM was used to analyze data. Results: Eighty eight cases and 88 controls were recruited, median age for cases was 7 years (Q1=4, Q3=8) and 6 years (Q1=3, Q3=9) for controls. Independent risk factors for contracting rubella were; classmate contact (AOR 9.44; (95% CI 4.29-20.77)) and having >3 children in a household (AOR 2.59; 95%CI (1.23-5.42)). Only 10.2% and 6.8% of the caregivers' cases and controls respectively, knew  rubella is spread through contact with an infected person (p=0.57). Majority of caregivers (97.8%) reported to the health facility within two days of onset of rash.Conclusion: Outbreak was driven by contact at school and was spread into the community through  school children. Screening and isolation of the sick controlled the outbreak. Routine rubella vaccination could be considered to prevent similar outbreaks.Key words: Rubella outbreak, risk factors, Gokwe Nort

Evaluation of the adverse drug reaction surveillance system Kadoma City, Zimbabwe 2015

Introduction: Medicines have the potential to cause adverse drug reactions and because of this Zimbabwe monitor reactions to medicines through the Adverse Drug Reaction Surveillance System. The Medicines Control Authority of Zimbabwe monitors reactions to medicines through the Adverse Drugs Reactions Surveillance System. The system relies on health professionals to report adverse drug reactions to maximize patient safety. We report results of an evaluation of the Adverse Drugs Reactions Surveillance System in Kadoma District.Methods: A descriptive crosssectional study was conducted using the updated CDC guidelines in six health facilities in Kadoma City. Data were collected using a pretested interviewer administered questionnaire, checklists and records review. Data was analyzed using Epi InfoTM to calculate frequencies and means. Qualitative data were analyzed manually. Written informed consent was obtained from all study participants.Results: The surveillance system did not meet up to its objectives as it failed to detect the adverse drug reactions and there was no monitoring of increases in known events. Fewer than half (43%) of the participants were aware of at least 2 objectives of the surveillance system but 83% of health workers willing to participate. However the system was not acceptable, 79% did not perceive the system to be necessary with the majority saying ''why should we fill in the forms when the reactions were already known or minor''. Though the system was supposed to identify potential patient risk factors for particular types of events health workers were reluctant to participate as evidenced by only one form filled out of 20 reactions experienced in the district. The system was simple as the notification form has 16 fields which require easily obtainable information from the patient records.Conclusion: The surveillance system was not useful and was not acceptable to health workers but was simple and stable. Health workers lacked knowledge. Sharing of results with the Medicines Control Authority of Zimbabwe through the Matrons facilitated training of health workers in Kadoma City. Health workers were encouraged to notify any drug reaction and to completely fill in the notification forms. Patients were also encouraged to report any drug reaction to health care workers.Keywords: Adverse drug reactions, surveillance system, Kadoma, Zimbabw

Evaluation of the adverse events following immunizations surveillance system in Harare City, Zimbabwe, 2016: a descriptive cross sectional study

Introduction: Vaccines safety are monitored by looking for Adverse Events Following Immunizations (AEFIs). A review of the 2014 Harare City consolidated monthly return form (T5) revealed that 28 AEFIs were seen in 2014. However, only 21 were reported through the system. We therefore evaluated the Harare City AEFI surveillance system to assess its usefulness. Methods: A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted. Twenty one of 41 clinics were randomly selected and 51 health workers were randomly recruited. Interviewer administered questionnaires were used to collect data. Epi info 7 was used to generate frequencies, means and proportions. Results: Out of 51 respondents, 50 (98%) knew the purpose of AEFI system, 48 (94%) knew at least two presenting symptoms of AEFIs and 39 (77%) knew the correct date of form submission to the next level. Receiving no feedback 24 (47.1%), fear of victimisation 16 (31.4%) and work overload 11 (21.6%) were the major reasons for under reporting. Eighty six percent perceived the system to be simple and 43 (84%) were willing to continue participating. Fifty three percent (27) reported taking public health actions (such as awareness campaigns & making follow ups) basing on AEFI data collected. All 46 reviewed forms were completely filled and submitted in time. All 21 clinics had written AEFI guidelines and case definitions. Only 14 of 21 clinics had adequately stocked emergency drugs. The total cost for a single notification was estimated at US$22.30. Conclusion: The system was useful, simple, acceptable, timely, stable, representative but costly. The good performance of the system reported in this evaluation could be attributed to high health worker knowledge. Following this evaluation, replenishment of out of stock drugs and follow up of missing 2014 AEFI feedback from MCAZ were done. In addition, making the system electronic is recommended